UNIVERZA V LJUBLJANI FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA
ODDELEK ZA ANGLISTIKO IN AMERIKANISTIKO ODDELEK ZA GERMANISTIKO Z NEDERLANDISTIKO
IN SKANDINAVISTIKO
TANJA ŠPES
English and German Reading Badge in Primary Schools in Slovenia
Leseabzeichen im Englisch- und Deutschunterricht an slowenischen Grundschulen
Angleška in nemška bralna značka v slovenskih osnovnih šolah
Magistrsko delo
Ljubljana, 2021
UNIVERZA V LJUBLJANI FILOZOFSKA FAKULTETA
ODDELEK ZA ANGLISTIKO IN AMERIKANISTIKO ODDELEK ZA GERMANISTIKO Z NEDERLANDISTIKO
IN SKANDINAVISTIKO
TANJA ŠPES
English and German Reading Badge in Primary Schools in Slovenia
Leseabzeichen im Englisch- und Deutschunterricht an slowenischen Grundschulen
Angleška in nemška bralna značka v slovenskih osnovnih šolah
Magistrsko delo
Mentorja:
red. prof. dr. Igor Maver izr. prof. dr. Irena Samide Somentorica:
lekt. dr. Veronika Rot Gabrovec
Študijski program:
Magistrski dvopredmetni študijski program druge stopnje Anglistika
Magistrski dvopredmetni študijski program druge stopnje Nemcistika
3 Abstract
English and German Reading Badge in Primary Schools
The thesis explores how English and German teachers in primary school promote (extensive) reading in foreign languages and encourage their students to dedicate their free time to reading books. The first part presents the concept of reading skills, reading in a foreign language, and reading of literature texts as well as the purpose and use of literature as a teaching tool.
Furthermore, the thesis explores reading motivation and techniques to stimulate students' motivation. Presented in more detail are intensive and extensive types of reading along with various reading approaches teachers can resort to while promoting oral reading in classrooms.
The second part presents the results of the survey carried out among English and German teachers across Slovenia. Research questions pertain to topics such as organising a reading badge, the number of participating students, preparation before the competitions, the level of students’ interest. Some alternative reading projects organised by teachers are also presented.
Keywords: reading badge competitions, teaching methodology, literature classes, primary school
4 Izvleček
Angleška in nemška bralna značka v osnovnih šolah
Magistrska naloga preučuje, kako osnovnošolski učitelji angleškega in nemškega jezika spodbujajo (ekstenzivno) branje v tujih jezikih in opogumljajo učence, da svoj prosti čas posvečajo branju knjižnih del. V prvem delu so predstavljeni koncepti bralne kompetence, branja v tujem jeziku in branja literarnih besedil. Sledi predstavitev literature s pedagoškega vidika. Predstavljena je tudi bralna motivacija in tehnike za spodbujanje notranje motivacije učencev. Naloga podaja tudi razlike med intenzivnim in ekstenzivnim branjem in predstavi različne bralne metode. V drugem delu sledi interpretacija rezultatov raziskave, ki je bila izvedena med osnovnošolskimi učitelji angleškega in nemškega jezika. Raziskovalna vprašanja odpirajo teme, kot so: organizacija bralne značke, število sodelujočih učencev, priprave pred tekmovanjem itn. Predstavljeni so tudi bralni projekti, ki jih v nekaterih šolah organizirajo namesto bralnih značk.
Ključne besede: bralna značka, metodika pouka, pouk književnosti, osnovna šola
5 TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. EINLEITUNG ... 8
2. INTRODUCTION ... 11
3. LESEKOMPETENZ ... 14
3.1. Das Lesen in der Fremdsprache ... 16
3.2. Lesestrategien ... 17
3.3. Das Lesen literarischer Texte ... 18
4. LITERATURE AS A TEACHING TOOL ... 21
4.1. Reading motivation ... 24
4.1.1. Techniques for stimulating motivation ... 25
4.2. Types of reading: Intensive vs extensive reading ... 26
4.3. Reading in classrooms ... 29
5. EUROPEAN SURVEY ON LANGUAGE COMPETENCES ... 32
6. ENGLISH AND GERMAN READING BADGE COMPETITIONS ... 34
6.1. DZS Publishing House ... 34
6.2. Mladinska knjiga Publishing House ... 35
7. EMPIRICAL PART ... 37
7.1. The purpose and methods of research ... 37
7.2. Interviews with publishing houses ... 38
7.2.1. Interview with Center Oxford (Oxford University Press, Mladinska knjiga) ... 38
7.2.2. Interview with DZS ... 39
7.3. Research on teachers’ experience with reading badges ... 40
7.3.1. Do seventh-, eighth- and ninth graders in your school compete for the English/German reading badge? ... 41
7.3.2. Which reading badge competition do you organise in your school? ... 42
7.3.3. If you organise your own reading badge, give reasons as to why and how you organise the reading badge. ... 42
7.3.4. Why do you decide for a certain reading badge competition? ... 44
7.3.5. Estimate how many students in each grade compete for the reading badge... 45
7.3.6. Would you, based on the experience and numbers from previous school years, say that the students' interest in reading in a foreign language flags? ... 48
7.3.7. How do you organise preparations for the competition? ... 49
7.3.8. What instructions do you give your students before reading books on their own? ... 50
7.3.9. Make a suggestion for promoting reading or competing for reading badge; what could be done by teachers to motivate students; or state how you personally convince students to take part in the competition. ... 50
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7.3.10. Researchers quote various reading techniques. Do you use any of the below listed during
in-class reading? ... 51
7.3.11. H. Douglas Brown suggests the following techniques to stimulate students’ intrinsic motivation. How often do you use them in class? ... 57
7.3.12. What effect does reading in a foreign language have on students’ skills? ... 64
7.4. In-depth interviews with English and German teachers ... 66
7.4.1. Different possibilities for promoting (extensive) reading ... 66
7.4.2. Interview No. 1 ... 67
7.4.3. Interview No. 2 ... 67
7.4.4. Interview No. 3 ... 68
8. CONCLUSION ... 70
9. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG ... 74
10. POVZETEK ... 79
11. BIBLIOGRAPHY ... 81
12. APPENDIX 1 ... 86
13. APPENDIX 2 ... 90
14. APPENDIX 3 ... 94
7 ABBILDUNGSVERZEICHNIS
Abbildung 1: Dimensionen der Lesekompetenz……… 14
Abbildung 2: Kompetenz-Modell des Lesens in didaktischer Perspektive……….……….. 15
LIST OF GRAPHS Graph 1: Do seventh-, eighth- and ninth graders in your school compete for the English/German reading badge? ... 41
Graph 2: Which reading badge competition do you organise in your school? ... 42
Graph 3: Why do you decide for a certain reading badge competition? ... 44
Graph 4: The percentage of students competing for the English reading badge ... 46
Graph 5: The percentage of students competing for the German reading badge ... 47
Graph 6: Does the students’ interest in reading in a foreign language flag? ... 48
Graph 7: Preparations for the competition ... 49
Graph 8: Paired or assisted reading ... 52
Graph 9: Mumble reading ... 53
Graph 10: Cloze procedure oral reading ... 53
Graph 11: Whisper reading ... 54
Graph 12: Choral reading ... 55
Graph 13: Imitative reading ... 55
Graph 14: Four-way oral reading ... 56
Graph 15: Paired reading/retelling ... 57
Graph 16: Playing games and laughing with the learners ... 58
Graph 17: Praising learners for their effort ... 58
Graph 18: Building up learners’ self-confidence ... 59
Graph 19: Reminding learners of why they may need the target language ... 60
Graph 20: Promoting peer review ... 60
Graph 21: Focusing on the right-brain skills ... 61
Graph 22: Correcting only a selection of errors ... 62
Graph 23: Having learners self-correct ... 63
Graph 24: Getting learners to set their own aims or goals outside classroom walls ... 63
Graph 25: Encouraging learners to ask questions ... 64
Graph 26: Effect of reading on students’ skills as perceived by English teachers ... 65
Graph 27: Effect of reading on students’ skills as perceived by German teachers ... 65
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1. EINLEITUNG
Die Literatur spielt bei geradezu allen Kulturen und Nationen eine wichtige Rolle. Gerade mit der Entwicklung des modernen Buchdrucks, der um 1450 von Johannes Gutenberg eingeführt wurde, wurden Bücher auch für die ärmere Bevölkerung zugänglicher und die Alphabetisierung, die folgte, hat maßgebend zur weiteren Entwicklung der Gesellschaft, der Nationen und nicht zuletzt der Demokratie beigebracht. Die Bücher haben an Beliebtheit gewonnen und haben sich einen Weg in die breitere Gesellschaft gebahnt. Jedoch ist die Realität heutzutage ein bisschen anders, den Büchern wird kein Vorrang mehr eingeräumt. Heutzutage leben wir in einer digitalisierten Welt. Das lässt sich überall sehen, auf jedem Schritt sind wir darauf aufmerksam gemacht. Nicht zuletzt hat zur noch schnelleren Digitalisierung auch die aktuelle Pandemiekrise beigetragen, denn viele Aktivitäten werden online durchgeführt, sogar der Unterricht, der traditionell seit jeher auf die schulischen Räume begrenzt war.
Die Bücher werden immer mehr durch elektronische Geräte ersetzt und man sieht öfter bereits Kinder und Jugendliche mit einem Smartphone anstatt eines Buches in der Hand. Jedoch ist die Lesekompetenz von erheblicher Bedeutung, diese Kompetenz wird den Kindern in den Schulen beigebracht. Lehrer und Lehrerinnen bemerken, dass die Kinder und Jugendlichen immer schlechtere Leistungen in der Lesekompetenz ausweisen, bereits in der Muttersprache, was sich dann auch auf die Lesekompetenz in den Fremdsprachen, die Kinder in den Schulen lernen, überträgt.
Aus persönlichen Erfahrungen mit Schülern und Schülerinnen im englischen und deutschen Unterricht in der Grundschule kann ich sagen, dass es überraschend viele Schüler und Schülerinnen gibt, die Probleme mit Leseverstehen (zusammen mit fehlender Schreibkompetenz) aufweisen. Während intensives (detailliertes) Lesen in den Schulen öfters angewandt wird, wird extensives Lesen, das auch viele Vorteile bringt und wesentlich zur Verbesserung der Lesekompetenz beibringt, wegen des Zeitmangels benachteiligt. Im Mittelpunkt der Betrachtung stehen deshalb folgende Forschungsfragen:
1.) Welche Vorteile bringt den Lernenden das Lesen in der Fremdsprache der Meinung der Lehrkräfte nach?
2.) Was für eine Rolle spielt bei der Förderung der Lesekompetenz das sogenannte Leseabzeichen? Dabei handelt es sich um ein Leseprojekt, wobei Schüler und Schülerinnen vorgeschriebene Bücher lesen müssen, um eine Auszeichnung zu gewinnen.
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3.) Wie organisieren die Lehrkräfte die Vorbereitungsklassen für das Leseabzeichen?
4.) Wie fördern die Lehrkräfte in den Grundschulen das extensive Lesen im Englischen und Deutschen (neben dem Leseabzeichen)?
Zudem werden drei Hypothesen aufgestellt, die ich anhand der Analyse der Umfrage unter Englisch- und Deutschlehrern und Forschungsfragen entweder bestätigen oder widerlegen kann. Die Hypothesen lauten:
1.) Mehrere Deutschlernende als Englischlernende (prozentual gesehen) machen bei dem Projekt Leseabzeichen mit. Der Grund dafür lässt sich auf das Schulsystem zurückführen, in dem English ein Pflichtfach und Deutsch ein Wahlfach ist. Daraus lässt sich der Schluss ziehen, dass jeder Lernende, der Deutsch als Wahlfach auswählt, zum weiteren Lesen und Lernen mehr motiviert ist und weitere Möglichkeiten sucht, um seine Deutschkenntnisse zu verbessern.
2.) Englisch- und Deutschlehrer benutzen verschiedene (alternative) Lesemethoden im Unterricht.
3.) Englisch- und Deutschlehrer wissen, dass Motivation eine große Rolle beim Fremdsprachenerwerb spielt, und wenden deshalb oft verschiedene Motivationstechniken im Fremdsprachenunterricht an.
Der theoretische Teil befasst sich mit der Lesekompetenz und ihren verschiedenen Dimensionen. Weiterhin richtet die Arbeit den Fokus auf das Lesen in der Fremdsprache und das Lesen literarischer Texte. Im Kapitel 2 wird die Literatur aus der pädagogischen Sicht dargestellt. Danach folgt die Darstellung der Lesemotivation, die sehr wichtig für das Engagement der Lernenden ist. Die Arbeit lenkt Aufmerksamkeit auch auf die Motivationstechniken, deren sich die Lehrkraft bedienen kann. Anschließend werden die Unterschiede zwischen intensivem und extensivem Lesen hervorgehoben. Kapitel 3 verschafft einen Überblick über die Möglichkeit, das extensive Lesen zu fördern: mittels des englischen und deutschen Leseabzeichens.
Der empirische Teil besteht aus drei Teilen. Wie bereits erwähnt, wird eine Möglichkeit zur Förderung des extensiven Lesens in den Leseprojekten (s.g. Leseabzeichen) angeboten. Im ersten Teil werden deshalb diesbezügliche Informationen vermittelt, die von den Verlagen DZS und Oxford Center (Mladinska knjiga) durch persönliche Korrespondenz erhalten wurden und die einen Einblick in die Organisation der Leseprojekte gewähren. Im zweiten Teil werden die
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Resultate der Umfrage präsentiert, die unter Lehrern und Lehrerinnen für English und Deutsch als Fremdsprache in den Grundschulen durchgeführt wurde. Das Ziel dieser Umfrage war, einen Einblick in die bestehenden Praxen im Hinblick auf das Lesen zu gewähren. Im dritten Teil werden drei Interviews mit Lehrerinnen abgedruckt, die entweder das „offizielle“
Leseabzeichen für ihre Schüler und Schülerinnen organisieren oder ihr eigenes Leseprojekt entwickelt haben.
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2. INTRODUCTION
Throughout the centuries, literature has been an essential part of many cultures and nations across the world. Books were printed, sold, and read; they have influenced the society in many ways. Nowadays, however, the situation is a bit different. We live in a digital world, which is characterized by new technologies, social media, and artificial intelligence. Books seem to have lost their appeal; children holding smart phones or similar devices in their hands instead of books are now a common sight. Nevertheless, one should not forget that ‘reading’ and ‘literacy’
are expansive terms; their definitions have been changed and adapted, subkinds have been introduced. Experts recognize the importance of carriers of texts (printed materials, tablets, smart phones etc) and talk about various literacies rather than a single type of ‘literacy’ (c.f.
Harris and Hodges, 1995; Brooks, G. and Burton, M., 2017). Indeed, the importance of the social, cultural, and historical contexts in which literacy is practised is emphasised by many studies, and it has been argued that much more than observing a set of autonomous (purely mechanical or operational) skills' is involved in the research of literacy (Brooks and Burton 2017: 73).
The subkind that lies at the core of this thesis, reading literacy, has been defined 'as the ability to understand, use and reflect on written texts in order to achieve one’s goals, to develop one’s knowledge and potential, and to participate effectively in society' (OECD Glossary 2002).
Reading literacy is an ability that children must acquire to become active citizens, and a major part of this process happens in schools. Some teachers notice that students lack certain reading skills, in their mother tongue as well as in foreign languages.
Do children nowadays read less and are they less literate because of the digital devices they use? Nancy Newman (2017) claims that it is a myth that children do not read anymore because of the digital devices they use and points out that children need to learn both how to use the device and how to read the printed word. Similarly, parents and teachers need to learn how to help children get the best out of technology. The fact that language is put aside in the twenty- first century is on the other hand stressed by Grosman (Grosman, 2004, 2006). Grosman devoted her career to exploring reading and her contributions in this field have shed light on the complexity of reading and paved the way for other researchers to further explore the notion of reading. She stresses that reading is a key factor in the process of personality development, and her scientific monography Zagovor branja. Bralec in književnost v 21. Stoletju (2004) is one of the fundamental contributions to the field of reading. The monography offers insights
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into numerous scientific studies in the field of linguistics, literary theory, sociology, and psychology. Grosman does not deny the fact that digital devices bring some advantages, but she points out that the process of developing numerous linguistic skills is slowed down or even halted. This has also consequences on the cognitive and emotional development of children.
Speaking from personal teaching experience with students in English and German classes in a primary school, I can say that quite a lot of students experience problems in reading comprehension (as well as writing skills). Different forms of intensive reading are often applied in foreign language classes, however, as far as the extensive reading is concerned, it is often left behind, particularly at the primary level, even though it brings many advantages to students.
Therefore, we have decided to observe how teachers integrate that type of reading into the subject curriculum or classes. This master’s thesis thus focuses on the following research questions:
1.) What advantages do students gain from reading in a foreign language in teachers’ opinion?
2.) What is the role of the reading badge when it comes to promoting reading skills?
3.) How do teachers organise preparations for the reading badge?
4.) In what ways do teachers encourage extensive reading approach (apart from the official reading badges)?
To obtain answers to these questions, a survey and further interviews among English and German teachers will be carried out. By including both English and German teachers in the survey, we have the possibility to compare similarities and differences between English and German classes and reading badges (official competitions or school-run activities) teachers organise to encourage extensive reading. The results of the survey will test the following hypotheses:
1.) Students learning German as a non-compulsory subject are more likely to participate in extracurricular activities, such as official reading badges competitions or school-run projects, than students learning English.
(Students learning German may feel more motivated to improve the language; after all, it is their decision to choose German classes, while English classes are mandatory for all students in most primary schools.)
2.) English and German teachers use a variety of reading methods in their classes.
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3.) English and German teachers know that motivation plays a vital role in helping students acquire a foreign language, which is why they often use various techniques for stimulating students’ motivation.
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3. LESEKOMPETENZ
Bei PISA wird Lesekompetenz als Fähigkeit beschrieben, „geschriebene Texte zu verstehen, zu nutzen, über sie zu reflektieren, um eigene Ziele zu erreichen, das eigene Wissen und Potenzial weiterzuentwickeln und am gesellschaftlichen Leben teilzunehmen“ (Baumert et al.
2001: 23). Deshalb umfasst der PISA-Test verschiedene Textsorten mit Aufgaben in unterschiedlichen Schwierigkeitsstufen. In den Jahren 2000, 2009 und 2018 lag der Schwerpunkt der PISA-Studie gerade auf der Lesekompetenz der Schüler und Schülerinnen
Was die Lesefähigkeit betrifft, stellen Artelt et al. (2004: 141) fest:
Lesefähigkeit stellt damit ein universelles Kulturwerkzeug dar, dessen Bedeutung auch in einer sehr verändernden Medienlandschaft nicht geringer geworden ist. Vielmehr stellt sich immer wieder heraus, dass lesen zu können eine notwendige Voraussetzung bzw.
Schlüsselqualifikation für den kompetenten und selbstbestimmten Gebrauch aller Medien darstellt.
Bartnitzky (2006: 19) fokussiert sich auf die Dimensionen der Lesekompetenz. Die folgende Tabelle basiert zum Teil auf den Ausführungen von Hurrelmann (2002: 16):
Abb. 1: Dimensionen der Lesekompetenz (Bartnitzky, 2006: 19)
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Aus der obigen Übersicht ergeht, dass es fünf verschiedene Dimensionen der Lesekompetenz gibt: Motivation, Kognition, Emotion, Kreativität und Lese-Kommunikationen. Bei der Motivation geht es vor allem darum, dass das Lesen als etwas Positives, Unterhaltsames und Wichtiges wahrgenommen wird. Kognition setzt sich mit kognitiven Aspekten des Lesens auseinander (erkennen, reflektieren, bewerten, verstehen). Bei Emotion wird hervorgehoben, dass die Leser und Leserinnen ihre eigenen Erfahrungen und Gefühlserlebnisse mit dem Lesen verbinden und Inhalte lesen, an denen sie Interesse haben. Die Kreativität setzt voraus, dass man sich mit den Texten kreativ auseinandersetzt (z. B., in dem man innere Vorstellungsbilder entwickelt). Nicht zuletzt gibt es dann die Lese-Kommunikationen. Diese setzen voraus, dass man über Gelesenes mit anderen Leuten diskutiert, Meinungen austauscht und Ähnliches (Bartnitzky 2006: 19).
Ein anderes Modell, das sich mit seinen Ausgangspunkten an das Bartnitzkys Modell anknüpfen lässt, wurde von Rosebrock (2012: 5) dargestellt. Darin ist die Entwicklung von Lesekompetenz in drei verschiedenen Ebenen dargestellt (die Prozessebene, die Subjektebene und die soziale Ebene des Lesens), die eine wichtige Rolle bei der Leseförderung spielen.
Abb2: Kompetenz-Modell des Lesens in didaktischer Perspektive (Rosebrock und Nix 2008: 16)
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Wie aus der Abbildung ersichtlich, sind auf der Prozessebene die folgenden Merkmale eingeschlossen: Wort- und Satz-Identifikation, lokale sowie globale Kohärenz, die Erkennung der Superstrukturen und die Identifizierung der Darstellungsstrategien. All das deutet auf das Lesen als einen mentalen anspruchsvollen hochgradigen und eigenständigen Prozess hin. Die Subjektebene umfasst Wissen, Beteiligung, Motivation und Reflexion in Schülergruppen; das sind die Bereiche, die zielgerichtet weiterentwickelt werden können. Nicht zuletzt ist auch die dritte, soziale Ebene bei der Förderung des Lesens sehr wichtig, denn das Gespräch über Gelesenes in der Familie, in der Schule oder unter Gleichaltrigen hat einen erheblichen Einfluss sowohl auf die Subjektebene (das Engagement beim Lesen) als auch auf einen erfolgreichen Leseprozess auf der Prozessebene (Beste et al. 2012: 9).
3.1. Das Lesen in der Fremdsprache
Bevor man in Fremdsprachen liest, muss man normalerweise zuerst das Lesen in der Muttersprache lernen bzw. beherrschen. Das Lesen in der Fremdsprache ist bestimmt anspruchsvoller als das in der Muttersprache. Dabei stößt man zweifellos auf bestimmte Herausforderungen bezüglich des kulturellen Wissens, der Sprachkompetenz in der Fremdsprache und des fachlichen Hintergrunds. Die fremdsprachliche Leseforschung ist in den achtziger Jahren durch die folgenden vier Hypothesen geprägt worden (zit. nach Weis 2000:
20):
1. Die linguistic threshold hypothesis (Cummins (1979) und Clarke (1979), zit. nach Weis 2000:
20) setzt voraus, dass „der fremdsprachliche Leser erst dann in der Lage ist, einen Text in der Fremdsprache zu verstehen, wenn er eine bestimmte Kompetenz in der Fremdsprache (linguistic threshold) erreicht hat, das heißt, die Fähigkeit zum Lesen in der Fremdsprache hängt weitgehend von den Sprachkenntnissen ab“ (Weis, ibid.). Diese Hypothese erwies sich jedoch als umstritten. Weil verschiedene Texte unterschiedliche Forderungen im Hinblick auf die Sprache bringen, ist es notwendig, dass der linguistic threshold für jeden Text neu bestimmt wird. Es lässt sich demnach auch nicht verneinen, dass der Leser einen fachspezifischen Text auch bei geringer sprachlicher Kompetenz verstehen kann, wenn er sich mit dem fachlichen Hintergrund gut genug auskennt.
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2. Die short circuit hypothesis von Clarke (1988, zit. nach Weis 2000: 20) untersucht, was geschieht, wenn sich ein Leser, dessen Sprachwissen zu gering ist, mit einem Text in der Fremdsprache auseinandersetzt. Es kann passieren, dass er, wegen mangelndes Sprachwissens, große Teile des Textes überspringt. Auf diese Weise kann er den Text nicht erfolgreich und in seiner Ganzheit verstehen.
3. Die linguistic interdependence hypothesis (Weis 2000: 20) besagt, dass die Lesekompetenz in der Fremdsprache von der Lesekompetenz in der Muttersprache abhängig ist. Die sprachliche Fähigkeit Lesen ist sprachunabhängig – wenn der Leser über sie in der Muttersprache verfügt, kann er sie auch einsetzen, wenn er die Zweitsprache erlernt.
4. Die bi-orientation hypothesis (Lee 1986, zit. nach Weis 2000: 21) besagt, dass der Leser in der Zweitsprache einerseits datenorientiert (d.h. auf der syntaktischen, morphologischen und phonologischen Ebene), andererseits aber auch hypothesengeleitet liest.
Als Hauptproblem der Hypothesen sieht Weis (2000: 21) die Tatsache, dass sie für das Lesen in der Zweitsprache allgemein formuliert worden sind und „nicht berücksichtigen, dass Lesen in der Fremdsprache ein vielschichtiger Faktorenkomplex ist, der nicht allein von der Lesekompetenz in der Erstsprache und der Sprachkompetenz in der Zweitsprache abhängt, auch wenn diese beiden Faktoren natürlich eine zentrale Bedeutung haben.“
3.2. Lesestrategien
Was die Schüler angeht, die in der Grundschule Fremdsprachen lernen, kann gesagt werden, dass sie die Fremdsprache bzw. zumindest den Wortschatz bis zu einem gewissen Grad beherrschen müssen, damit sie einen (längeren) Text (obgleich wenn nur zum Teil) verstehen können. Deshalb werden auch die Texte in Lehrbüchern so gestaltet, dass ein gradueller Übergang von sehr leichten und kurzen Leseabschnitten bis zu längeren anspruchsvolleren Texten erfolgt. Dabei ist es von erheblicher Bedeutung, dass die Lernenden gleichzeitig mit der Lesekompetenzförderung auch bestimmte Lesestrategien erwerben, damit sie sich mit Texten erfolgreich befassen können. Diesbezüglich können den Lernenden gerade die Lehrer und Lehrerinnen behilflich sein. Deren Verantwortung ist demnach nicht nur, mit den Lernenden die Texte zu lesen und zu bearbeiten, sondern ihnen auch die angemessenen Lesestrategien beizubringen. Deswegen sind im Folgenden bestimmte Lesestrategien präsentiert, die einen
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großen Stellenwert sowohl für die Fremdsprachenlerner als auch für die Fremdsprachenlehrer haben.
Buhlmann und Fearns (1987, zit. nach Kosevski Puljić 2015: 160) sprechen von drei Ebenen, was die Lesestrategien betrifft, und zwar von der Textebene, der Satzebene und der Wortebene.
Auf der Textebene werden die folgenden drei Lesestrategien betont:
- Aktivieren von Vorwissen und Vorerfahrung zum Textinhalt;
- Aufbau einer Leseabsicht;
- Entschlüsselung der Textinformation.
Auf der Satzebene wird von den folgenden Strategien gesprochen:
- Schlüsselwörter unterstreichen;
- Textkonnektoren unterstreichen und die Bezüge, die sie herstellen, angeben;
vorhersagen, welche Informationen sich vermutlich anschließen;
- Kontextbezüge bzw. Kontextreferenz herausarbeiten.
Auf der Wortebene können drei Strategien genannt werden:
- Ausnutzung sogenannter cognates (Wörter der Fremdsprache, die dem muttersprachlichen Wort ähnlich sind) und Internationalismen;
- Wortbildungsregularitäten;
- Ausnutzung des Kontextes. (Vgl. Kosevski Puljić 2015: 160.)
3.3. Das Lesen literarischer Texte
Weis (2000: 1) zufolge ist die sprachliche Fertigkeit Lesen (neben dem Schreiben, dem Hören und dem Sprechen) in vielen Kulturen der Welt für die gesellschaftliche Sozialisierung sehr wichtig. Deshalb sollte sie auch eine angemessene Stellung innerhalb des Fremdsprachenunterrichts haben.
Das Lesen und die Interpretation literarischer Texte erfolgt zweifellos auf eine andere Art und Weise als das Lesen eines Sachtextes. Die beiden Textsorten erweisen verschiedene Eigenschaften und verlangen deshalb verschiedene Methoden, mit denen man sich damit
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auseinandersetzt. Stern (1997: 8) stellt Unterschiede zwischen Sachtexten und literarischen Texten fest, was ihre Rezeption unter den Lernern bzw. Lesenden betrifft. Sie führt an, dass ein literarischer Text den fremdsprachigen Lesern größere Schwierigkeiten bereitet als ein Sachtext. Das lässt sich darauf zurückführen, dass durch einen Sachtext hauptsächlich Informationen übermittelt werden, während ein literarischer Text durch Multivalenz gekennzeichnet wird. Gerade wegen dieser „Polyvalenz“ rezipieren verschiedene Leser den Text anders. Aufgrund der Arbeit mit ausländischen Germanistikstudenten stellt Stern (ibid.) fest, dass es unter den Studenten, obwohl sie die Sprache ziemlich gleich beherrscht hatten, zu großen Rezeptionsunterschieden kam. Ihrer Meinung nach ist der Grund dafür in den unterschiedlichen kulturellen Kenntnissen, über die die Studenten verfügten.
Stern (1997: 9) erläutert auch den Leseverstehensprozess, der sich von text- und leserabhängigen Faktoren beeinflussen lässt. Zu den textabhängigen Faktoren gehören der sprachliche und inhaltliche Komplexitätsgrad des Textes, der Schrifttyp, die Schriftgröße, der Zeilenabstand und ähnliche drucktechnische Variablen. Als leserabhängige Faktoren gelten
„sprachliches Wissen, Vorwissen […], Verarbeitungskapazität, Vorurteile und Einstellungen, Motivation und Interesse sowie die Zielstellungen des Lesers“ (Stern 1997: 9). Unter affektive Faktoren zählt Stern Motivation und Interesse. In Anlehnung an andere Forscher und beruhend auf ihren eigenen Erfahrungen stellt sie fest, dass „mangelnde Motivation und fehlendes Interesse im Fremdsprachenunterricht durch den Lehrer größtenteils abgebaut werden können“
(Stern 1997: 9).
Mit literarischen Texten im Fremdsprachenunterricht setzt sich bei uns in Slowenien ausführlich Literaturwissenschaftlerin Neva Šlibar auseinander. In ihren beiden wissenschaftlichen Lehrbüchern (Šlibar 1997 und 2011) legt sie den Grundstein für die Didaktik des fremdsprachlichen Literaturunterrichts in Slowenien, bietet eine fundierte theoretische Grundlage sowie zahlreiche Beispiele für Didaktisierungen in der Klasse an.
Lesestrategien beim Lesen fremdsprachiger Literatur untersucht ausgiebig Saša Jazbec (2009) und zeigt anhand ihrer empirischen Studien, wie wichtig es ist, im (Literatur)unterricht auf die Methodik aufmerksam zu sein, dabei fokussiert sie sich in erster Linie auf die Germanistikstudierenden. Ähnlich sind auch bei Irena Samide (2020) im Fokus Studierende der (internationalen) Germanistik bzw. bereits fortgeschrittene Lernende, deswegen sind ihre innovativen Didaktisierungsvorschläge für meine Magisterarbeit nicht von primärem Interesse.
Literarische Texte im Kontext des allgemeinen DaF-Unterrichts untersucht auch Kosevski
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Puljić (2015: 158‒159), die in erster Linie den Unterschied zwischen einem Sachtext und einem literarischen Text hervorhebt. Ein Sachtext mag zwar etliche Gefühle und Emotionen hervorrufen, aber ein literarischer Text bringt auch andere Empfindungen mit (zum Beispiel, Irritation, Freude, Trauer). Deshalb empfindet der Leser eine stärkere Motivation, er kann den Text aus seiner Weltperspektive betrachten und ihn mit seinen persönlichen Erfahrungen verbinden. Laut Kosevski Puljić (ibid.) sollte das fremdsprachliche Lesen die Lernenden dazu motivieren, sich auch mit literarischen Werken auseinanderzusetzen und auch auf diese Art und Weise die Zielsprache zu erleben.
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4. LITERATURE AS A TEACHING TOOL
“Literature is where I go to explore the highest and lowest places in human society and in the human spirit, where I hope to find not absolute truth but the truth of the tale, of the imagination and of the heart.” Salman Rushdie
Literature has always been an essential aspect of society. Throughout history, it has had the power to shape civilisations, nations, and languages, offered reflections on societies and its values, exposed injustice, defined human relationships, and reflected human nature. Literature has also found its place in foreign language classrooms, since language and literature are closely connected – there can hardly be a literary work without a language, while, on the other hand, literature gives many opportunities to the applications of a language. Brumfit and Carter (1986:
1) even considered literature as “an ally of language”; indeed, it has always been understood as an important ally, independent of the currently popular teaching method, the important difference being how it was incorporated in the prevailing method. Teaching methods in foreign languages have changed through time, starting with the Grammar-Translation Method, followed by the Direct Method, and later the Audiolingual Method all the way to the Communicative Approach. The latter argues that the focus should be on the learner and their needs while stressing the importance of authentic communication in the foreign language. Even though authentic materials, such as letters, recipes, newspaper articles, advertisements and the like are highly welcomed and needed in a communicative language classroom where the communicative competence is the generally accepted goal in foreign language teaching, Daskalovska and Dimova (2012: 1182) argue that learners should be given “a meaningful content that will provoke their interest, capture imagination and give them something important to talk about”. An interesting point of view is offered by Widdowson, who observes:
It’s not easy to see how learners at any level can get interested in and therefore motivated by a dialogue about buying stamps at a post office. There is no plot, no mystery, there is no character;
everything proceeds as if communication never created a problem. There’s no misunderstanding, there’s no possibility of any kind of interaction. What happens is that learners simply mouth the sentences of their parts, and you don’t actually get them interested in what they are doing. (Widdowson, 1983: 33)
In order to get the learners to respond and react to the text, they need to be offered a wide range of representational materials, through which they can interact with the text, make questions and
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evaluations, emotional and creative connections to the text and relate to it on a personal level through their own experiences. Such experiences are brought to learners by reading literature, and therefore literature should be included in the foreign language classroom (Daskalovska and Dimova 2012: 1183).
Over the last two decades, many authors and researchers have emphasized the role of using literature in foreign language teaching. Collie and Slater (1987, as cited in Koutsompou 2015:
75) proposed three main criteria as to why literature should be used as a second language teaching tool; the linguistic, the methodical, and the motivational criterion. The linguistic criterion states the reason behind the need of use of literature in language teaching: it gives students an opportunity to deal with authentic, genuine segments of language. Moreover, through literary texts, students are exposed to a wide range of styles, text types, and registers.
To get to know such a wide variety is of crucial importance for foreign language learners.
Furthermore, it adds a social-communicative function, which means “that a message needs to be linguistically correct and situationally appropriate” (Koutsompou 2015: 75). The second, methodological, criterion sheds light on the fact that a literary text can be interpreted in many ways. Different interpretations then lead to different opinions among the students. Stating and exchanging opinions can heat up a real motivated interaction with the text, other students, and the teacher, whereby the interaction precisely is essential part of the communicative approach.
Furthermore, through literature, students obtain cultural information about foreign countries.
Finally, the motivational criterion is extremely important. Since the literary text, among other things, also reveals fundamental parts of human consciousness and experiences of emotions, such texts provide a powerful motivation in learners. If they feel touched or provoked, they will be able to relate on a personal level through their own experiences (Koutsompou, ibid.).
Combining all three criteria mentioned above, Koutsompou (2015: 75) states the following reasons as to why teachers should introduce literature in a language classroom: literature makes the class interactive; interactive classes can improve the communicative competence of the learners. Interactive class can help learners to improve their critical thinking abilities. Literature classes focus on a learner-centred environment and a lot of classroom activities regarding literary texts can be carried out. Furthermore, literary texts broaden students’ horizons. A literary text has a dialogic nature; it tries to persuade students to respond to it and to reflect on their own experiences or points of view.
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Furthermore, Koutsompou presents three models for the teaching of the literature: the cultural model, the language model, and the personal growth model.
The cultural model is described as follows:
Through literature, students get to know the background not only of the particular novel but also they learn about history, society, and politics of the country described in the novel or story. By experiencing this, they open themselves to understanding and appreciating ideologies, mentalities, traditions, feeling, and artistic form within the heritage the literature of such cultures endows. (Koutsompou 2015: 75)
The language model is explained as follows:
One of the main reasons for a teacher’s orientation towards a language model for teaching literature is to give students knowledge with some sense of the more subtle and varied creative uses of language. A main impulse of language-centred literature teaching is to help students find ways into a text in a methodical way and for themselves. If we take into consideration that
“literature is made from language”, we can easily conclude that if students can improve their reading abilities, they will be able to come to terms with a literary text as literature.
(Koutsompou 2015: 75)
The last, the personal growth model, is the one teachers are very interested in, because they want to help students achieve an engagement with the reading of literary works:
Helping students to read literature more effectively is helping them to grow and mature as individuals as well as their relationships with the people around them. To encourage personal growth the teacher has to select texts to which students can respond and to which they can use their ideas and imagination creatively. (Koutsompou 2015: 76)
The following chapter sheds some more light on reading motivation and how teachers can stimulate it and help students to read more often and with more joy.
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4.1. Reading motivation
Motivation is a notion that defines every aspect of our lives and is crucial in obtaining the goals we set. It is a topic well researched in various fields. As Khan et al. (2017: 41) propose, there can be found many studies defining and dealing with reading motivation, yet only in terms of first language literacy development. The role of motivation in second language reading has not yet been as thoroughly explored. Dörnyei (2000: 519–520) proposes that motivational processes consist of elements of choice, persistence, and effort. He explains as follows:
[…] most researchers would agree that motivation theories in general attempt to explain three interrelated aspects of human behaviour: the choice of a particular action, persistence with it, and effort expended on it. That is, motivation is responsible for why people decide to do something, how long they are willing to sustain the activity, and how hard they are going to pursue it. (Dörnyei 2000: 519–520)
As far as reading motivation is concerned, readers seem to be divided into two groups:
intrinsically motivated readers and extrinsically motivated readers. Intrinsically motivated readers read for their own sake and because they want to learn something. (Khan et al. 2017:
42). On the other hand, extrinsically motivated readers need external demands and values (ibid.); their motivation comes from the outside of the learner (Ur 1996: 275–280).
Wang and Guthrie (2004, as cited in Khan et al. 2017: 42) have provided further insights into both motivational components. They suggest that extrinsic motivation has five underlying factors: “competition (wanting to outdo others in the activity of reading), compliance (wanting to adhere to rules and instructions given), recognition for reading (wanting to receive recognition and gratification for success in reading), grades (expecting good academic evaluations for reading) and social (wanting to share readings with one’s social network)”
(Khan et al. 2017: 42). On the other hand, intrinsic motivation includes three underlying factors:
“curiosity (wanting to read on a specific topic due to interest), involvement (experiencing pleasure from reading); and challenge (gaining satisfaction from deciphering complex ideas)”
(ibid.).
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4.1.1. Techniques for stimulating motivation
Motivation is one of the key factors in language learning. Since learning a foreign language (most commonly English) in primary schools in Slovenia is obligatory for all learners, it could be said that their motivation is primarily extrinsic. However, there are some students who feel the inner wish to learn a foreign language and are therefore intrinsically motivated to study harder, do better and be better in mastering a foreign language. On the other hand, the second foreign language (most often German, but also French, Italian, and other languages are offered in primary schools) is a non-obligatory subject. Hence it should be safe to say that each student who attends a second foreign language class is intrinsically motivated because, after all, it was their choice to sign up for the class from the very beginning. However, this is not always the case, as parents tend to be the ones who persuade their children to learn an additional language, and students are again extrinsically motivated. This leads to the assumption that in the majority of cases, teachers deal with extrinsically motivated students. Therefore, getting to know ways or approaches on how to bolster learners’ motivation can prove helpful to many teachers.
Ur (1996: 277–279) proposes ways in which teachers can affect sources of extrinsic and intrinsic motivation, even though some still remain out of their reach. The two most potent sources of extrinsic motivation are success and failure. As far as success is concerned, the teacher must make learners aware of the things they did well and how they succeeded because by getting the feedback, learners should feel a stronger motivation to do better. The other way around, the teacher can also use the technique of the learners’ failure. The teacher has to inform learners that they did not do their best and are able to do better. Learners should then understand what should be avoided in order to accomplish the task with more success. Still, correcting mistakes and too much negative commenting can lower the learners’ motivation, so the teachers have to be very cautious when using this source. They should help learners understand where their mistakes come from, so the learners could see for themselves how near or far they are from the goals that have been set. Brown (cf. 2000, 2001) proposes several principles for good language learning and teaching. His guidelines can also be used for stimulating students’
motivation for learning a foreign language (Brown 2000, as cited in Plavšić 2020: 19–20).
Teachers can help their students by:
1) lowering inhibitions by playing games and laughing with the learners to make them feel comfortable communicating in the target language, 2) encouraging risk taking or stimulating the pragmatic competence by praising learners for their effort, 3) building up learners’ self-
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confidence through praise of what they had already achieved,4) reminding learners of why they may need the target language, 5) promoting peer review, 6) focusing on the right-brain skills (fluency exercises), 7) encouraging learners to ask questions if they do not understand, 8) helping learners use their intuition in language learning – correcting only a selection of errors, 9) having learners self-correct and learn from their own mistakes and10) get learners to set their own aims or goals outside classroom walls. (Plavšić 2020: 19–20)
4.2. Types of reading: Intensive vs extensive reading
According to experts, there are various types of reading. For the purpose of this thesis, a special attention will be given to two types: intensive and extensive reading approach with their advantages and disadvantages.
Miller (2013: 70) describes the intensive reading methodology as an approach that puts the teacher into the centre of the learning process, as it is the teacher who directs what happens when reading: what to read, when to read, how to read, which grammar, vocabulary or comprehension points are to be highlighted and discussed. The teacher encourages students to ask questions, the teacher remains the one that sets the pace and makes all the decisions about what to do with the text. Literacy research shows that intensive reading brings many proven benefits, particularly as it applies to vocabulary development and acquisition (ibid.). However, the intensive reading approach puts a lot of focus on the sentence level syntax by analysing short paragraphs of the texts. This results in the fact that a class is not really devoted to reading in its real sense (Susser and Robb 1990: 161–162). Another troubling fact is the teacher’s tendency to focus on the translation of sentences or passages, which could hardly be seen as efficient use of time in a foreign language reading class. Lastly, the reading process that includes a detailed investigation of all aspects of a very short reading passage can easily become tedious and not motivating for students (Miller 2013: 71). Nuttall (1996: 127) describes the “vicious cycle of the weak reader”; weak readers often slow down the reading pace while reading challenging segments, which can result in reading avoidance. Since students are therefore demotivated and do not enjoy reading, this brings little improvement in comprehension and language learning (ibid.). The intensive reading approach is typical of a class reading lesson. It is vital for classes in school, where grammar or syntax is explained on the basis of the context, sentences from the text.
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On the other hand, there is an extensive reading approach that can be used in reading badge classes, where students are supposed to read not only short paragraphs or passages but entire books. According to Neupane (2016: 2), the term “extensive reading” was first introduced by Palmer in 1917, who made a distinction between extensive reading and intensive reading in terms of how much is read, the degree of depth, and the extent of comprehension. The extensive reading approach emphasizes the quantity of reading and the student’s own choice of what to read. Students are therefore more motivated to read. Of crucial importance is not a detailed understanding of each word that comes up in a sentence and furthermore a syntactical structure (as it is often the case with intensive reading), but an overall comprehension of the text.
Furthermore, extensive reading is more autonomous because it is no longer teacher-centred.
Miller (2013: 71–72) explains that students are given the responsibility to follow their own progress and cites numerous researchers who claim that the extensive reading approach helps students improve their vocabulary even in the absence of the instructions prepared by teachers.
It has also been discovered that due to improved reading comprehension, students are able to read faster, can better understand grammar conventions, improve writing skills and are more motivated for reading. As Neupane (2016: 1–2) states, extensive reading is a reading methodology where the readers read the text for pleasure and general information. Such an approach proves useful for setting reading habits. Extensive reading is intended “to develop good reading habits, to build up knowledge of vocabulary and structure, and to encourage a liking for reading” (Richards et al. 1985: 100). Neupane (2016: 2) further explains what extensive reading means: “(i) to read for pleasure and information, (ii) to read without the help of the teacher, (iii) to read silently and quickly, (iv) to read without using a dictionary, (v) to read for setting habit, (vi) to encourage liking for reading, (vii) to read for gaining taste of foreign language”.
Neupane (2016: 3) cites various scholars that have proven the benefits of extensive reading, among which he lists: positive attitudes towards reading, increased motivation, and self- confidence in foreign/second language, benefits in terms of spoken and written performance, fluency, spelling, vocabulary, grammar and text structure.
Day and Bamford (2002: 137–141) put forward ten principles for an extensive reading approach, inspired by Ray Williams’ article, published in 1986, in which the author discusses his top ten principles for teaching foreign language reading. However, since Williams’
principles relate primarily to intensive reading, Day and Bamford designed a set of tenets of
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teaching extensive reading, which they believe are “the basic ingredients”. Day (2015: 295) lists them as follows:
1. The reading material is easy.
2. A variety of reading material on a wide range of topics must be available.
3. Learners choose what they want to read.
4. Learners read as much as possible.
5. The purpose of reading is usually related to pleasure, information and general understanding.
6. Reading is its own reward.
7. Reading speed is usually faster rather than slower.
8. Reading is individual and silent.
9. Teachers orient and guide their students.
10. The teacher is a role model of a reader.
(Day 2015: 295)
However, as much literacy research in the late twentieth century favoured extensive reading and its implementation in many schools, many reading specialists in the twenty-first century have expressed concern that extensive reading approach does not bring such effectiveness as a means of vocabulary acquisition. Hinkel (2006: 122) states: “… a vast body of research has established that explicit teaching represents the most effective and efficient means of vocabulary teaching.” Cobb (2007: 38) addresses the issue whether learners can acquire (enough) vocabulary only through extensive reading. With the help of linguistic computing and computer text analysis, learner and linguistic data can be measured. Such computer processing makes it clear that it is unlikely that most of second language learners are able to improve their vocabulary only through reading.
As seen above, the intensive and extensive reading both have various advantages but also disadvantages. Current best practices now support a balanced approach of intensive and extensive reading. Reading specialist Anderson (1999, as cited in Miller 2013: 72) explains:
It is my belief that good readers do more extensive reading than intensive reading. But what makes the reader a good reader is that he/she has developed the strategies and skills through intensive reading that are transferred to extensive reading contexts. These ideas should give us, as reading teachers, cause to pause and consider the ratio of intensive and extensive reading
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activities we ask our students to engage in and see if we are providing opportunities for both types of reading.
The reading badge could be seen as a combination of both intensive and extensive reading approach, as the students are obliged to read the whole books while discussing some segments with their teachers in special after-class lessons (in the form of intensive reading). As such, it can bring numerous advantages to the students involved, helping them become better language users.
4.3. Reading in classrooms
Reading in a classroom could be regarded as part of the intensive reading approach. For the reasons discussed above, oral reading can, if not carried out cautiously, soon become boring, monotonous, and demotivating for learners.
Nevertheless, Wood and Harmon (2001: 37) suggest that oral reading practice can be an effective way of helping students understand texts, because it results in a more fluent reading, providing students are exposed to oral reading in lively and enjoyable ways. Wood and Harmon suggest that oral reading practices in the classroom have always posed a severe challenge to teachers, who would then resort to round robin reading techniques (i. e. the students take turns reading aloud). However, this is a practice that fails to be supported by researchers for any grade level (Tierney and Readence 2000). The practical research-based strategies described by Wood and Algozzine (1994: 315–333) could help middle and high school students to develop reading fluency. The approaches can easily be used not only in a mother tongue language classroom, but also in foreign language classrooms.
These reading approaches are as listed below with a short description included:
• Paired or assisted reading
• Cloze procedure oral reading
• Mumble reading
• Whisper reading
• Choral reading
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• Imitative reading
• Four-way oral reading
• Paired reading/retelling
(cf. Wood and Harmon 2001: 37–39)
Paired or assisted reading
Two or more students are paired up to read aloud in unison. The benefits of this approach and the reason why students like it is the fact that they have someone to help them and someone they can rely on.
Cloze procedure oral reading
The teacher reads the text, and the students follow along using their own texts. Then the teacher makes a stop at selected points (words or phrases) and it is up to students to insert what is missing or to complete teacher’s sentence. Students benefit from this approach because they must follow along and make the speech-to-print match.
Mumble reading
Mumble reading is described as “reading aloud softly, but under your breath” (Wood and Harmon, 2001: 38). The teacher chooses points in the text, whereupon students are instructed to mumble read to the end of the passage.
Whisper reading
This approach to reading means “carefully pronouncing the words but in a very soft voice”
(Wood and Harmon, 2001: 38). Students can do that individually, in pairs or in a group work.
Choral reading
Choral reading can be an enjoyable and interesting method when applied cautiously, sensibly, and together with other methods. Students reading in unison can create an exciting atmosphere about what happens next in the text.
Imitative reading
This approach can prove helpful when some weaker readers need help with their fluency. While it is not necessary to pronounce every word correctly in order to be able to understand the text, the rhythm and intonation of the language are crucial. With this approach, the teacher selects a
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short paragraph and reads it in an exaggerated tone. Afterwards students are called on to repeat after the teacher and imitate his or her manner of reading.
Four-way oral reading
The teacher takes on the role of leading the students, instructing them to use several methods, from whisper reading and mumble reading to choral reading and imitative reading and concluding with whisper reading. In doing so, the teacher can evoke and maintain an exciting pace.
Paired reading/retelling
The teacher teams up students to do the reading orally or silently. Students are instructed to use different methods or practices. After they finish the selected segments, students retell what they read. The partners are asked to help when or if necessary, by adding information the one who retells the segment misses or forgets.
(cf. Wood and Harmon 2001: 37–39)
Wood and Harmon (2001: 40–41) additionally share some important notes that need to be observed if oral reading is to be successfully incorporated in a lesson:
- the most essential part of reading is comprehension and not the correct pronunciation of all the words,
- students’ understanding of what is read can be increased through group retellings and posing questions that require higher level thinking,
- the amount of oral reading can be decreased with the higher grade and proficiency level of the students,
- struggling readers can be offered an opportunity for silent reading and retelling in pairs or small groups more often,
- students can be instructed to read a selected segment silently before lively oral reading.
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5. EUROPEAN SURVEY ON LANGUAGE COMPETENCES
One of the important reasons why this topic has been chosen for the thesis is the European Survey on Language Competences (ESLC): the results thereof were published in 2011 and showed that there remained a lot to be done as far as reading achievements in foreign languages of Slovene students were concerned. Reading should be encouraged at every level of education, whether in mother tongue or foreign languages
The European Survey on Language Competences was designed to gather information about the foreign language proficiency of students in the last year of lower secondary education or the second year of upper education. The survey encompassed approximately 53,000 students across Europe in sixteen participating educational systems in fourteen countries. The aims were to deliver information about language competences and language learning, teaching methods and curricula. Tested were two most commonly taught foreign languages of the five official languages of the European Union (English, French, German, Italian, and Spanish) in each of the educational system. In Slovenia, English and German were tested. Students’ language proficiency was measured according to the Common European Framework of Reference for languages (2001). Results published in 2011 show that Slovene ninth graders are above average in English and German as far as listening comprehension and writing are concerned. On the other hand, their achievements in reading comprehension are average (cf. ESLC Survey, 2011).
According to the Slovenian subject curriculum for English and German as foreign languages, ninth graders should achieve level A2 in English and A1‒A2 in German (according to the Common Reference Levels in the Common European Framework of Reference). The results suggest that in English a large percentage (47%‒67%) of students exceeded the proposed aims of the curriculum, which is very encouraging. However, the published report about the survey (cf. ESLC Survey, 2011) reveals the levels to be achieved at the end of the primary school as established in the Slovenian EFL-curriculum are set too low according to the recommendation by the European Commission. As far as German is concerned, between 20% and 28% of the students exceeded the level of knowledge set in the Slovenian subject curriculum for the ninth graders. On the other hand, despite these encouraging facts about students exceeding the levels set, the results reveal that there are still quite a lot of Slovene ninth graders that do not achieve the level of knowledge prescribed in both curriculums: a worrying fact is that 41% of the students do not achieve the level set in the curriculum for reading comprehension in English.
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Among all three language competences tested (writing, listening, and reading), the most significant percent of students in both languages (12% in English, 21% in German) that do not achieve the first sub-level of A1 falls to reading comprehension. Such results would be expected in writing skills, since this is a productive skill requiring some form of language output and is therefore more complex than the other two tested language skills. Comparing both tested languages students achieve better results in English. However, it is interesting that the difference between both languages is not as enormous as it would be expected considering that students took on German classes three years later than English (cf. ESLC Survey, 2011).
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6. ENGLISH AND GERMAN READING BADGE COMPETITIONS
Reading competitions in foreign languages are offered to Slovenian primary schools by two publishing houses, the first one being DZS and the second one Mladinska knjiga. In the following, a few characteristics of each competition are listed.
6.1. DZS Publishing House
DZS Publishing House organises competitions for EPI reading badges for primary and secondary schools. Languages offered are English, German, Spanish, Italian (only in primary schools), and French (only in secondary schools).
The aims of the competitions are:
• to broaden and deepen the knowledge; to give students the opportunity to get to know literature of other nations in their original versions (booklets are of different levels and accompanied with appropriate didactic tools),
• to compare the students’ levels of knowledge,
• to increase the popularity of reading in a foreign language,
• to discover and encourage talented students,
• to serve as a motivation for students to improve their knowledge of foreign languages; to show students discreetly what they can do,
• to impart a positive attitude towards books to students,
• to invoke in students the will to read,
• to offer students a different, fresh, and interesting way of learning a language that is adapted to their age and developmental phase,
• to directly show students the appeal and usefulness of intercultural communication.
(Translated from Pravilnik o tekmovanju iz znanja za Epi bralne značke v osnovni in srednji šoli T.Š.)
Tasks to be completed and an answer key with point values are prepared by the organiser and their external experts. Competitors complete the tasks in writing. At least two days ahead of the competition, the mentors receive tests and answer key with point values. The duration of the competition is one school period. The tasks are evaluated by mentors in fifteen days at the latest.
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Each competition takes place in Slovenia in the same week, determined by the organiser for each reading competition.
Criteria for the award certificates:
- students who achieve 90% of available points receive golden award certificates,
- students who achieve between 60% and 89% receive silver award certificates (in English Epi reading badge in primary school they have to achieve between 70% and 89% of available points),
- students who achieve up to 59 % or 69% (in English Epi Reading Badge in primary schools) get certificates for participation in the project.
After the competition, mentors receive a certificate for the one-year mentorship and are eventually on track to be eligible for promotion. The Epi Reading Badge project is financed through funds acquired by the organiser’s own activities.
(Adapted from Pravilnik o tekmovanju iz znanja za Epi bralne značke v osnovni in srednji šoli T.Š.)
6.2. Mladinska knjiga Publishing House
The second option for a foreign language reading competition is offered by Mladinska knjiga – Center Oxford. As stated in the reading competition policy (cf. Center Oxford Competition Policy) the competition promotes reading in foreign languages and encourages reading literacy and reading culture. Foreign languages in which the reading competitions are offered are English (Bookworms), German (Bücherwurm, Pfiffikus), Italian (Il topolino di biblioteca, Il topo di biblioteca), French (Le rat de bilbiothèque), and Spanish (El ratón de biblioteca).
Teachers (mentors at school) and other co-workers take part in organising the competition at their school. After the competition, teachers ‒ mentors, and other co-workers receive certificates of professional cooperation. The competition is carried out by each school. The instructions, competition tasks and evaluation instructions are prepared by consultants for foreign languages at Oxford Centre and by external experts (foreign language teachers).
Competition tasks are prepared in foreign languages, the instructions are written in Slovene
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and/or in a foreign language. The competition takes place online. Books that need to be read and the method of implementation are presented in each year’s tender. Students compete individually. The school competition is carried out at the time and place determined by the school competition committee. Students can compete from their homes, as well. Tasks are evaluated electronically. Competitors can see the points they achieved after the competition period has ended and the unofficial results are presented. After five days, the official results are announced. Competitors who achieve at least 50% of all available points receive the certificate for successfully completing the test.
Each student who achieves at least 50% of all possible points takes part in the drawing of practical rewards, determined in the tender. The drawing is electronic and takes place five days after the announcement of official results at the latest. Students who compete for the English Reading Badge in the school year 2020/2021 in the sixth, seventh, eighth and ninth grade and will achieve at least 50% of available points will receive a certificate and take part in the drawing for Oxford Wordpower Dictionary. Four dictionaries will be drawn, one in each competition group.
Students competing for the German Reading Badge who will achieve at least 50% of all available points will receive a certificate and will take part in the drawing for book rewards. In each competition group, ten books will be drawn, thirty books altogether. The participation in a reading competition is voluntary and free of charge. There is no registration fee.
(Adapted from Razpis za bralna tekmovanja Centra Oxford za šolsko leto 2020/2021)
