workbook
Table of Contents
T0. Summary ... 106 T1. National profile ... 107 T1.1 Drug-related deaths ... 107 T1.2 Drug related acute emergencies ... 109 T1.3 Drug related infectious diseases ... 114 T1.4 Other drug-related health harms ... 116 T1.5 Harm reduction interventions ... 117 T1.6 Targeted interventions for other drug-related health harms ... 119 T1.7 Quality assurance of harm reduction services ... 119 T2. Trends ... 120 T3. New developments ... 125 T4. Additional information ... 126 T5. Notes and queries ... 126 T6. Sources and methodology. ... 126
T0. Summary
Data on drug related deaths among drug users are collected in the General Mortality Register.
Monitoring data include direct deaths, i.e. intentional poisoning , unintentional poisoning and deaths of undetermined intent. In 2014, 28 drug related deaths were registered (26 men and 2 women), the same as the year before. The most common causes of death were poisoning by heroin (13 deaths) and methadone (12 deaths). Most of the deceased were aged between 35 and 39. Data monitoring in the last 10 years has revealed that drug users die older. The number of methadone poisonings, which is the second most frequent cause of death, has been increasing since 2010. In 2015, 32 drug related deaths were registered (28 men and 4 women). The most common causes of death were poisoning by heroin (15 deaths) and methadone (7 deaths),5 less than the year before.
Data or registrations of poisoning by illicit drugs are collected in the Slovenian Register of Intoxications, kept by the Centre for Poisoning at the University Medical Centre Ljubljana (hereinafter UMCL).
Currently, the collection system provides an overview of poisonings by illicit drugs in the Ljubljana region.
In 2015, it will extend to the entire country through a project for the ‘Detection System for Poisoning by New Psychoactive Substances in Slovenia’ (hereinafter SONDA). In 2014, it was discovered that 128 patients were treated at UMCL emergency medical units for poisoning induced by illicit drugs, which is almost twice as many as in preceding years. Notably, the number of heroin poisonings rose again, the number of cannabis poisonings continued to rise, while cocaine poisonings increased dramatically. The number of poisonings by amphetamine-type stimulants (ecstasy, amphetamines) did not change significantly with respect to preceding years. Furthermore, more cases of poisoning by new psychoactive substances were recorded; poisoned patients were mostly men (90%), while the average age of users was 21 years. In 2015, the internal medicine emergency units of the UMCL treated 145 patients for illicit drug-related acute emergencies, which is more than in previous years. The number of heroin, cocaine and cannabis poisonings continued to raise. The number of acute emergencies involving amphetamine-type stimulants has remained stable, furthermore only five acute emergencies induced by NPS were registered in 2015.
The situation in infectious diseases among drug users remained relatively stable in 2014 and also in 2015. The prevalence of HIV, hepatitis C (HCV) and hepatitis B (HBV) infections is monitored by collecting data on voluntary diagnostic tests for HIV, HCV and HBV infections among injecting drug users entering or re-entering a treatment programme within the national network of Centres for the Prevention and Treatment of Illicit Drug Addiction, which covers the entire country. Furthermore, unlinked anonymous testing for surveillance purposes is conducted among persons who inject drugs (hereinafter PWID) requesting treatment for the first time. The National Institute of Public Health (hereinafter NIPH) collects data on diagnosed cases of HIV, HBV and HCV infections, including data about the route of transmission. All diagnoses of infections with the mentioned viruses must be reported according to the Contagious Diseases Act (Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia, No. 33/06). In 2014, two cases of new diagnoses of HIV infections with a history of injecting drug use were reported to the NIPH. Respective HBV infection prevalence estimates ranged from the lowest 2.0% in 2012 to the highest 8.1% in 2011 and was 7.6% in 2014. Respective HCV infection prevalence estimates ranged from the lowest 21.5% in 2010 to the highest 37% in 2014. In 2015, one case of new diagnoses of HIV infections with a history of injecting drug use was reported to the NIPH. Respective HBV infection prevalence estimates ranged from the lowest 2.0% in 2012 to the highest 8.1% in 2011 and was 5.9%
in 2015. Respective HCV infection prevalence estimates ranged from the lowest 27.3% in 2012 to the highest 42.7% in 2015.
According to the available surveillance data, extensive HIV infection has not started spreading extensively among PWID in Slovenia. Due to underdiagnosis of infections and underreporting of
identified cases, data on HBV and HCV infection incidence rates underestimate the burden of these infections.
Comorbid mental disorders in terms of drug addiction have become an increasingly important topic, since a Slovenian study including almost 230 patients showed the presence of comorbidity in patients treated at the network of Centres for the Prevention and Treatment of Illicit Drug Addiction. That group of patients showed significantly more suicidal behaviour, previous suicide attempts, overdoses and prison sentences in terms of statistics, when compared to patients with no comorbid mental disorders.
In addition to introducing injection rooms, one of Slovenia’s recent harm reduction challenges has also been to reduce harm induced by new psychoactive substances (hereinafter NPS). Due to excessive use of NPS (primarily 3-MMC), the number of users seeking help at the DrogArt Counselling Centre increased substantially in 2014. These users represent a very heterogeneous group in terms of age (aged between 14 and 35) and have problems with psychological addiction, while a correlation between the use of 3-MMC and suicidality has also been observed.
According to experts, the network of low-threshold programmes should be reinforced and extended to new areas, despite numerous harm reduction programmes already being carried out in Slovenia. Hence, a need has arisen to extend programmes in medium-sized and small towns, while cities show a need for programmes for homeless drug users, in particular the need to establish night shelters. The programme for the exchange of sterile kits for drug injection represents the basic starting point for all other approaches within the frame of drug-related harm reduction, as it facilitates access to a sterile kit as well as to the hidden population of drug users. In 2015, there were 10 day centres on 8 locations across Slovenia running sterile injection equipment exchange programs. Two locations in Slovenia offer other forms of fixed-location sterile equipment exchange: a night shelter for drug users and a safe house for female drug users. In 2015, street sterile equipment exchange took place on 8 locations in three towns across Slovenia, while the mobile unit (van) exchange service was offered on 94 locations in 70 towns around the country. All the sterile equipment exchange programs issued a combined total of 500,757 syringes and needles in 2015. These programs have reported serving 1,966 different users of sterile injection equipment exchange programs, of which 124 were new users. The programs recorded 22,199 contacts with injecting drug users in 2015.
The number of needles and syringes issued in sterile kit exchange programmes fell in the last 6 years, while the number of contacts with PWIDs in these programmes rose last year. The use of heroin among illicit drug users decreased, while the use of other drugs increased. The latter is also typical of high-risk injecting opioid users seeking help in harm reduction programmes. Data has revealed that the mentioned group of users used other types of drugs, primarily cocaine, substitute and other medicinal products.
T1. National profile T1.1 Drug-related deaths
Mateja Jandl
Drug-related deaths have been monitored in Slovenia in line with the recommendations provided by the European Monitoring Centre for Drugs and Drug Addiction (hereinafter EMCDDA) since 2003.
Monitoring data include direct deaths, i.e. deaths directly caused by the effects of illicit drugs on a body (these include intentional poisonings , unintentional poisoning and deaths of unidentified or unconfirmed cause), and indirect deaths, where the effects of drugs contributed to the cause of death; these data have been taken from a cohort study. In 2014, the cohort study was concluded; the latter included 3949 persons between 2004 and 2006 who were monitored until 2014. In 2017, a new cohort study will be started.
The data on indirect deaths collected in a medical death certificate and cause-of-death report (death certificate) were analysed. The NIPH analyses and keeps these certificates in its General Mortality Register.
T1.1.1 Drug related deaths
32 deaths from illicit drug poisoning were recorded in Slovenia in 2015, which included cases of intentional poisoning (suicide), accidental poisoning and poisoning of undetermined intent. Of those who died, 28 were men and 4 were women; the average age of the men and women was 40.6 or 40.7 years respectively, which means that in contrast to 2014, the average age of the deceased of both sexes at the time of death was about three years higher. Most of the deceased were aged 35 to 39. (Table 1)
Table 1. Drug related deaths by drug group, age group and gender, 2015
Age group Total
Drug
< 15 15–19 20–24 25–29 30–34 35–39 40–44 45–49 50–54 55–59 60–64 > 65 Men Women Total
Heroin 0 0 1 0 5 5 0 4 0 0 0 0 14 1 15
Addiction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1
Other opioids 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 1
Methadone 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 2 1 1 7 0 7
Cocaine 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2
Cannabis 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 2
Other
psychostimulants 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 3 1 4
Total 0 0 3 3 6 8 2 5 0 3 1 2 28 4 32
Source: National Institute of Public Health, Medical report on a deceased person – NIPH 46
T1.1.2 Toxicology of drug related deaths
Most of the deaths recorded in 2015 were caused by heroin poisoning (15), with 7 cases of methadone poisoning, 5 less than the year before. A little over one-half of the deaths occurred as a result of accidental poisoning (18), two (2) cases of poisoning were intentional (suicide), and in 11 cases it could not be determined whether the poisoning was intentional or not; the reason for one of the deaths was self-harming. (Table 2) Currently, Slovenia does not analyse any additional information on the substances involved (illicit drugs and/or alcohol used in combination) or the cause of drug related deaths.
Table 2. The number of drug related deaths by external cause and type of drug used, 2015
Source: National Institute of Public Health, Medical report on a deceased person – NIPH 46
T1.1.4 Additional information on drug-related deaths Mateja Jandl
Two cases of cannabis related deaths were registered for the first time in Slovenia in 2015. Both cases, for which autopsy results were also obtained, are briefly outlined below.
Case 1: a 36-year-old man died at home. The most probable cause of death of the man, whose blood and urine tested positive for tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), or rather its metabolites, during autopsy, is a sudden cardiac arrest. This cause is underpinned by records in the literature stating cases of sudden cardiac death following the consumption of tetrahydrocannabinol. What's more, the autopsy did not show any changes to the myocardium or coronary arteries that could have caused the sudden cardiac arrest.
Case 2: after smoking marijuana and drinking energy beverage the night before, a 20-year-old girl, an asthmatic, collapsed in the morning, suffered a cardiac arrest and hit her head. After 8 days in hospital, she died of cerebral edema coupled with brain herniation. She had trouble ventilating her entire time in hospital, which eventually led to bilateral aspiration pneumonia, increased intracranial pressure, cerebral edema; brain death occurred after 8 days.