View of Aesthetics and the Representation of Discovery

Aesthetics and the Representation o f Discovery

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A esthetics in its p h ilo so p h ic al sense has its o rigins in th e s e v e n te e n th a n d e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry ra tio n a list a n d em p iricist assertio n s o f th e p rim acy o f individ ual e x p e rie n c e . T h e details o f this have b e e n w o rk e d o u t in th e last thirty years by scholars su ch as J e r o m e S tolnitz a n d G e o rg e D ick ie,1 a n d we have co m e to an in cre ased a p p re c ia tio n o f th e com p lex ity o f th o se o ri­

gins. In p artic u la r, co n c ep ts o f taste, ae sth e tic e x p e rie n c e , a n d th e e m e r­

g en ce o f an ae sth e tic a ttitu d e have th e ir o rig ins in th e prim acy o f in dividu al p e rc e p tio n in epistem ology, in the em e rg e n c e o f individual feeling a n d em o ­ tion as leg itim ate p arts o f value systems, a n d in th e tu rn to th e n a tu ra l sci­

en c es as th e m o d e l fo r ex p lan a tio n .

T h e system atic lin k ag e b etw e en scien c e a n d ae sth e tic s is o bv io us in m any instances. B oth Leibnizian rationalism an d N ew tonian em piricism fin d th e ir ae sth e tic c o u n te rp a rts in A. G. B a u m g a rte n ’s »aesthetics«2 a n d F rancis H u tc h e s o n ’s »sense o f beauty«3 respectively, fo r ex am p le. F ro m th ese p h ilo ­ so p h ical in vestigations th e re has e m e rg e d a p arallel re c o g n itio n o f th e cu l­

tu ral shifts th a t sh a p e this m o d e rn ist aesth etic. Taste as a m e ta p h o r fo r aes­

th etic p e rc e p tio n a n d value can be lin k e d to re n aissan ce a r t theory. T h e

1 Stolnitz,J. (1961). »Of the Origins o f ‘Aesthetic D isinterestedness’.« Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 20 (winter): 131-143. Stolnitz, J. (1961). »O n th e Significance o f L ord Shaftesbury in M odern Aesthetic Theory.« The Philosophical Quarterly 2 ,4 3 (April) : 97-113. Stolnitz, J. (1961). »Beauty: Some Stages in th e H istory o f an Idea.« The Journal of the History of Ideas 22, 2 (April-June) : 185-204. Stolnitz, J. (1978). »The

‘A esthetic A ttitu d e’ in the Rise o f M odern Aesthetics.« Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 36 (Sum m er): 409-422. Dickie, G. (1984). »Stolnitz’ A ttitude: Taste an d P erception.« a n d Stolnitz,J. (1984). »The A esthetic A ttitude in th e Rise o f M odern A esthetics - Again.« The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 43 (W inter): 193-208.

D ickie, G. (1974). Art and the Aesthetic: An Institutional Analysis. Ithaca, C ornell University Press. Dickie, G. (1996). The Century of Taste. O xford, O xford University Press.

2 B aum garten, A. G. (1954.). Reflections on Poetry (Meditationesphilosphicae de nonnullis ad poema pertinentibu). Berkeley, University o f C alifornia Press.

3 H utch eso n , F. (1725). An Inquiry into the Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue.

L o n d o n , J. Darby.

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individualism o f re fo rm a tio n theology a n d th e political b reakd ow n o f divine a u th o rity m otivate a m ove away fro m relig io us a n d c o u rt p a tro n a g e in th e d ire c tio n o f a m o re m e rc a n tile artw o rld . C ritical n o tio n s o f history go h a n d in h a n d w ith th e rise o f th e novel as a fictional fo rm o f histo rical n arrativ e.

In d iv id u al e x p e rie n c e o f n a tu re finds its ex p ressio n in a d esire fo r th e pic­

tu re sq u e , w hich in tu rn h elp s sh ap e th e ae sth e tic categ o ries o f ex p ressio n a n d im a g in a tio n th a t le a d to ro m an ticism . T h e d etails o f a e sth e tic s as a p h ilo so p h ic a l lan g u ag e a n d as a m o d e o f aw areness can b e tra c e d in alm o st every level o f c u ltu re fro m th e le n d in g lib rary a n d re a d in g p u b lic to th e w orld o f lan d sca p e g a rd e n in g .

A m o n g th e areas yet to be ad e q u ately e x p lo re d , however, is th e in te r­

re la tio n o f a e sth e tic s w ith th e pro cess o f discovery. Several asp e cts h e r e d eserv e a tte n tio n . First, p h ilo so p h e rs such as J o h n L ocke, w ho p ro v id e th e e m p iric ist fo u n d a tio n s fo r aesth etics,4 are actively involved in th e e n tr e p r e ­ n e u ria l aspects o f discovery. Locke, in his ro le as advisor to th e first e a rl o f S haftesbury, p rovides th e political fo u n d a tio n as well as p a rtic ip a tin g as a d ire c to r in th e C arolinas colo n izatio n . T h e c o n n e c tio n w ith aesth etics h e r e m ay a t first seem ten u o u s, b u t it becom es clea rer w hen o n e exam in es th e sty­

listic a n d arch itectu ra l elem en ts in startin g a new town o r p lan tatio n . J u s t as la n d sca p e g a rd e n in g p ro v id ed a m o d el fo r assim ilating n a tu re to th e new ae sth etic o f sense a n d sensibility, so the new w orld provides a m ean s o f tu rn ­ in g N e w to n ia n m e c h a n is m a n d in v e n tio n in to a e s th e tic s e x p re s s io n s . L o n d o n ’s squares a n d E d in b u rg h ’s New Town set th e m o del fo r th e aesth etic assim ilation o f an u rb a n environm ent. T h e carefully laid o u t towns o f C harles­

to n a n d S avannah are works o f a rt w hose m aterial is th e new lan d itself.

S econd, the fascination with travel literatu re, b o th actual a n d im ag in ed, b rin g s discovery in to lite ra tu re . In m u ch th e sam e way th a t p ic tu re sq u e n e ss h e lp s in tro d u c e d istan ce in to th e ru ra l lan d sca p e in such a way th a t la n d ­ scape itself b eco m es a r t r a th e r th a n a g ric u ltu re ,5 travel pro vid es d ista n c e from th e o rd in ary a n d thus aestheticizes th e o th ern e ss o f the world. T h e step to im a g in e d a n d im p o ssib le voyages (R o b in so n C ru so e a n d G ulliver, fo r ex a m p le ) is th e logical ae sth e tic ex ten sio n o f this fascin ation w ith th e new a n d physically d istant.

4 Townsend, D. (1991). »Lockean A esthetics.« The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 49, 4 (Fall): 349-361.

5 B arrell,J. (1990). »The Public P rospect and th e Private View: T he Politics o f Taste in E ighteenth-C entury Bri tian« in Reading Landscape: Country- City-Capital Ed. S. Pugh.

M an ch ester, M a n c h e ste r U niversity Press: 19-40. T ow nsend, D. (1997). »T he Picturesque.« The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism 55, 4 (Fall): 365-376.

A p artic u la r exem plification o f this im pulse can be fo u n d in th e history o f cartography a n d the place o f m aps in the p o p u lar culture o f th e sev en teen th a n d e ig h te e n th centuries. Discovery b o th p ro d u c es an d relies o n m a p m ak­

ing, a n d m ap m aking, in its tu rn , evolves in th e c o n te x t o f m ath em atically so u n d science. L atitude, longitude, a n d p rojectio n are th e cu ltu ral eq uivalent o f freein g perspective a n d color fro m religious ico n o g ra p h y in ren aissan ce painting. Even in th e m ost utilitarian m aps, th e re is an u n d e rly in g aesth etic o f fascination with a n d thrill in th e u n k n o w n a n d new c o m b in e d with a scien­

tific a ttitu d e tow ard g eographical know ledge a n d in fo rm atio n .

E. H. G o m b ric h sets o u t an im p o rta n t co n tra st b etw e en m ap s a n d pic­

tures: »M aps a re n o rm ally d e sig n e d to im p a rt in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e invari­

a n t fe atu res o f an area, in o th e r w ords they leave ‘a p p e a ra n c e s ’ o n o n e side.

T h e re a re n o m ap s o f V ien n a in m o o n lig h t o r o f th e m u seu m s o u t o f focus.

N o r w ould it be w elcom e if m aps a ro u s e d u n e x p e c te d visual sen satio n s such as flicker. . . .We speak o f re a d in g a m ap , a n d its fo re m o st r e q u ir e m e n t is in d e e d th a t it sh o u ld be as d istin c t as possible. W h e re su ch d iffe re n tia tio n fails th e use is p u t in jeo p ard y .« 1’ B u t m aps are n o t in d e p e n d e n t o f th e c o n ­ v en tio n s o f re p re s e n ta tio n by w h ich th ey are re ad . So m aps, like p ictu re s, d e p e n d o n b a c k g ro u n d in fo rm atio n . B ut in c o n tra st to so m e ways o f re g a rd ­ in g p ictu re s, m ap s serve to c o rre c t an e x tre m e relativism a b o u t r e p re s e n ta ­ tion. »T he g re a t variety o f styles we e n c o u n te r in th e im ag es o f p a st a n d p re s e n t civilizations c a n n o t b e assessed a n d in te r p r e te d w ith o u t a c le a r u n d e rs ta n d in g o f th e d o m in a n t p u rp o s e they are in te n d e d to serve. It is th e n e g le c t o f this d im en sio n w hich has sugg ested to som e critics th a t th e ra n g e o f re p re s e n ta tio n a l styles m u st so m eh o w re flect a variety o f ways in w hich th e w orld is seen. T h e re is only o n e step fro m this assu m p tio n to th e asser­

tion o f a c o m p le te c u ltu ra l relativism w hich d en ies th a t th e re a re sta n d a rd s o f accuracy in visual re p re se n ta tio n b ec au se it is all a m a tte r o f co nv en tio n .«

G o m b ric h c o n tin u e s »O nce m o re it is u sefu l a t this p o in t to re fe r to th e ex a m p le o f th e m ap. F or it is h a rd to b e co m p letely relativistic a b o u t m aps.

T h e re can be m istakes in m aps w hich can b e system atically re c tif ie d .. . . T his te c h n iq u e [su rv ey in g ], m oreover, has n o th in g to d o w ith th e way th e w orld is seen, fo r th e surveyor w ho w ants to m a p th e in v aria n t fe a tu re s o f a re g io n can a n d will n ev e r rely o n th a t elusive g u id e, his visual im p re ssio n o f th e lan d sca p e.« 7 T h u s m aps have an in fo rm a tio n a l fu n c tio n a n d a re p re s e n ta ­ tional fu n c tio n . T hey differ from p ictu re s in n o t relying o n a p p e ara n ces, b u t

6 G om brich, E. H. (1982). »M irror a n d Map: T h eo ries o f P ictorial R epresentation.«

The Image and the Eye. Ithaca, NY, C ornell University Press, 183.

7 Reinhartz, D. (1997). The Cartographer and the Literati-Herman Moll and His Intellectual Circle. Lewiston, MA, Edward M ellen Press, 188.

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they sh a re with p ictu re s o u r n e e d fo r p rio r in fo rm a tio n a b o u t th e keys a n d c o n v e n tio n s if we a re to re a d th e m accurately.

T h e analog y b etw een p ictu re s a n d m aps u sed by G o m b rich reveals th e duality in th e re p re se n ta tio n a l qualities o f m aps. T h ey are n o t lim ited to th e ir in fo rm a tio n a l fu n c tio n . T h e in te re stin g q u estio n is w h e th e r this is sim ply c o m p a r a b le to an y u tilita r ia n o b je c t b e c o m in g a n a e s th e tic o b je c t, o r w h e th e r th e re is s o m e th in g specifically in m ap s th a t plays a ro le n o t o nly in th e ir own aestheticization b u t in the co n c ep tu alizatio n o f th e aesth etic m o re g en e rally a t th e p o in t in tim e - th e s e v e n te e n th a n d e ig h te e n th c e n tu rie s - th a t p h ilo so p h ic a l aesth etics takes shape. I th in k th a t th e la tte r is th e case.

I I

T h e d u al a sp e c t o f objects su ch as m aps leads in ex o rab ly to th e se p a ­ ra tio n o f th e a e sth e tic a n d u tilita ria n th a t slowly a n d grad ually takes p lace in th e e ig h te e n th c e n tu ry o n a b ro a d scale. David H u m e a n d A d am S m ith still re g a rd b ea u ty as having its ro o ts in fu n c tio n a n d use, b u t by th e e n d o f th e century , beau ty is »all ye know a n d n e e d to know.« It stand s a lo n e o n c e a g a in as it d id in its P la to n ic form s, b u t now it is lo cate d wholly w ith in th e sensitive re alm o f individual feeling.

O n e aspect o f th e sep a ratio n o f th e utilitarian a n d aesthetic can b e seen in th e way th a t m aps a re p ro d u c e d a n d used. C o lo r serves th e fu n c tio n o f d e lin e a tin g areas, b u t its ap p e a l goes bey o n d its u tilita ria n fu n c tio n b ecau se th e m ap b eco m es an item o f display. If o n e ex am in es a typical late m edieval m a p o f O x fo rd s h ire , fo r e x a m p le , o n e fin d s r e p re s e n ta tio n s o f villages c ro w d ed to g e th e r so th a t th e ir sole use is to re in fo rc e th e w ritten n am es.

W hile th e re p re se n ta tio n is pictorial, it m akes little allow ance fo r display. O n th e o th e r h a n d , a H e rm a n M oll m ap as discussed by D en n is R e in h a rtz 8 is a fo rm o f display, d e s ig n e d as m u c h fo r th e eye as fo r g u id a n c e in lo catio n . It is an ex am p le o f th e e n g ra v e r’s art. Moll is an e n tre p e n e u r with his own shop, en g rav in g m aps fo r an a u d ie n c e th a t will n ev e r use th e m as g u id es to travel b u t w ants to p a rtic ip a te in th e new kno w ledge th a t th ey re p re s e n t. M aps assu m e a d e c o ra tiv e ro le ; th ey o cc u p y a p la c e o n th e wall o f th e D u tc h b u r g h e r d e p ic te d by V e rm eer n o t only as a re p re s e n ta tio n o f D u tch co lo ­ n ial e x p a n sio n a n d w ealth b u t also as a m ark o f taste. T h e new itse lf takes o n value a n d co n fers o n its ow ners a n d discoverers th e k in d o f re p u ta tio n fo r g o o d taste re c o m m e n d e d by B althazar G ra cian .9

8 Ibid., 23-28.

9 G racian, B. (1945). The Art of Worldly Wisdom. New York, T h e M acm illan Com pany.

In re n a issa n c e p a in tin g , flora, fa u n a, a n d la n d sca p e co m e to play an im p o rta n t ro le in e x h ib itin g c o lo r a n d fo rm fo r its own sake r a th e r th a n its religious a n d m ythical significance. W h a t b egins as b a c k g ro u n d b e c o m e s eventually itself th e o b je c t o f th e p a in tin g . An eye fo r d e ta il a n d d ire c t o b ­ serv atio n o f n a tu re so th a t in d iv id u al p lan ts a n d places ca n b e id e n tifie d tra n sfo rm p a in tin g in to an in d iv id u al e x h ib itio n o f k n o w led g e, skill, a n d taste. In th e se v e n te e n th a n d e ig h te e n th ce n tu rie s, th e d ec o rativ e e m b ro i­

d ery o f m ap s draw s a n o th e r e le m e n t, th e new ness o f th e u n k n o w n a n d its s u b o rd in a tio n to ex p lo ra tio n an d co n q u e st, in to th e aesth etic re a lm .10 W hile this is only o n e a sp e ct o f th e ae sth e tic iz atio n o f n a tu re , it ex em p lifies p a r­

ticularly well th e way th a t ae sth etic ca te g o ries e m e rg e fro m th e s e v e n te e n th a n d e ig h te e n th c u ltu ra l shifts in econom y, science, a n d ph ilo soph y.

O u t o f th ese shifts in cu ltu ra l p e rc e p tio n a n d in te lle c tu a l a ssig n m e n t o f evidential im p o rta n c e em erges Im m a n u e l K ant’s c o n c e p t o f th e ae sth etic as a fully d isin te re ste d fo rm o f p re -th e o re tic a l a n d p re -p rac tic al in tu itio n .

»In terest« is a c o m p le x c o n c e p t, how ever. Ju le s L u b b o c k p o in ts o u t o n e co m p licatio n in th e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d iffe re n t co n c ep ts o f » interest.« L u b ­ bo ck d istin g u ish es b etw een an e m e rg in g m a rk e t ec o n o m y b ase d o n co m ­ petitive c o n su m p tio n a n d th e e a rlie r ec o n o m y b ased o n a »stable b u t p ro s­

p e ro u s ru ral econom y.«11 In th e la tte r econom y, c o n su m p tio n by th e la n d e d g en try was a p u b lic o b lig atio n . B oth p rivate a n d p u b lic in te re s t h a d to b e d e fin e d d iffe ren tly th a n they are in th e ec o n o m y o f co m p etitiv e c o n s u m p ­ tion. L u b b o ck observes: »It seem s in c o rre c t to say th a t th e d iffe re n c e b e­

tw een th e n a n d now is th a t th e ‘c o n c e p t o f a g re a t n o b le m a n serv in g th e p ublic fo r du ty ra th e r th an g a in ’ d id n o t th e n exist. T h e re is s tro n g eviden ce o f a sense o f duty am o n g st lead in g statesm en a n d lesser gentry. B u t p e rh a p s they did n o t possess o u r clear-cut distin ctio n betw een the p u b lic in te re st a n d the private in te re st o f a lead in g figure w ho was a m e m b e r o f th e g o v ern m e n t.

T his b lu rrin g o f distinctions is clearly seen in B urg hley’s g ard en s, o n e o f th e ra re arts in w hich h e seem s q u ite g e n u in e ly to have d e lig h te d , so m u c h so th a t o n e o f his few re la x atio n s was to travel ro u n d his g a rd e n s o n a donkey.

S uch g a rd e n s as these w ere o rn a m e n ta l, ‘th e p u re s t o f h u m a n pleasu res ...

the greatest re fre s h m e n t to th e sp irit o f m a n ’ b u t th ey also h a d a scientific a n d c o m m ercial im p o rta n c e .« 12 F or Burghley, priv ate c o n s u m p tio n was a p u b lic o b lig atio n . In co n tra st, a new d istin c tio n b etw een p u b lic a n d private in te re st develops in th e se v e n te en th a n d e ig h te e n th century. In te re s t is c o n ­

10 See, for exam ple, th e S heldon Tapestry m ap o f L ondon m en tio n ed b y ju le s Lubbock.

Lubbock, J. (1995). The Tyranny of Taste. New Haven, Yale University Press, 82.

11 Ibid., xiv.

12 Ibid., 68-69.

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ceived as private in te re st, a n d p ublic in te re st m u st b e d e fe n d e d as d is in te r­

ested in th e private sense. O n e may n o t p ro fit from p u blic responsibility, b u t o n e is also n o t privately o b lig ated to s p e n d fo r th e p u b lic go od . P ub lic life a n d p rivate c h a ra c te r are s e p a ra te d in aw ay th a t d istu rb e d th e th ird ea rl o f S haftesbu ry.13 P ublic, m o ral d isin te rested n e ss c o n tin u e s to d evelop in to th e n o tio n o f »aesthetic d istin terested n ess« th a t is finally fully c o n ceiv ed in th e early n in e te e n th century.

U tilitarian objects such as gard ens a n d m aps ap p eal b o th to th e eye a n d th e e n d s fo r w hich they are m ade. B ut th e c o m p lex re la tio n s o f p e rso n a l, individu al p leasu re, private in tere st, a n d p u b lic in te re st in tro d u c e tension s, p artic u la rly w hen private a n d p ublic in te re st are se p a ra te d by th e m a rk e t econom y. L u b b o ck arg u es th a t »good design« - th e v alu ing o f an o b je c t fo r its quality a n d style - is d e p e n d e n t o n an ideological conservatism th a t seeks to stabilize society by m a in ta in in g class d istin c tio n s a n d an a g ra ria n , n o n ­ c o m m e rc ia l econom y. A new taste fo r m ass-p ro d u ced g oods th a t a p p e a l to a m o re c o m m o n taste a n d th e eco n o m y th a t m akes th e m a ffo rd a b le to a w ider g ro u p p ro m o tes the com m ercial interests o f L o n d o n against th e c o u n ­ try a n d o f th e low er a n d m id d le classes ag a in st th e lu xu ry -affo rd ing aristo c­

racy.

W h a t follows fo r a ra n g e o f a r t objects a n d o bjects o f p le a su re is th a t in o r d e r fo r th e m to c o n tin u e to serve th e ir ae sth e tic fu n c tio n , th ey m u st b e d ista n c e d from th e ir u tilitaria n fu n ctio n s b ecau se ae sth etic a p p re c ia tio n b rin g s th e m in to co n flic t w ith th e co m m ercial ec o n o m y a n d its n ew way o f d istin g u ish in g b etw een private a n d public interest. In th a t econom y, in stead o f lu x u ry b e in g a social o b lig atio n so th a t w ealth will trickle dow n to th e peasantry, lu x u ry m u st be ju stifie d by its own end s. T h a t c a n n o t b e d o n e if its social co n seq u en ces are consid ered. Esoteric, individual p leasure conflicts w ith social n e e d . T h e d e m a n d s o f th e m asses th re a te n th e social stability b ase d o n la n d e d o b lig atio n s to co n su m e so th a t o th e rs m ig h t w ork. I f o n e b e lo n g s to th e rising classes, th e n luxury is increasingly seen as th e illegiti­

m a te e n d s o f th e a n c ie n t re g im e th a t exists a t th e ex p e n se o f th e low er a n d m id d le classes. If ae sth e tic p leasu re is to be re ta in e d by a n y o n e, it m u st b e re c o n c e iv e d as an e n d in its ow n rig h t, fre e d fro m th e in te re s t o f e ith e r lu x u ry o r utility, a n d th a t is ju s t w hat th e rise o f m o d e rn aesth etics does.

W h a t this m ean s, o f course, is th a t w hile ae sth e tic p leasu re is a reality in b o th e a rlie r a n d la te r ideologies, a n d in fact m ay b e fairly close to a u n i­

versal w h e rev er th e exig en cies o f survival p e rm it, o u r c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f

13 See, fo r exam ple, C ooper, A. A. Earl o f S haftesbury (1964). »The M oralists: A P hilosophical Rhapsody« in Characteristics of Men, Manners, Opinions, Times. J. M.

R obertson. Indianapolis, Bobbs, M errill. II.

it as d is in te re ste d a n d a u to n o m o u s - th e ro o t m e a n in g o f »aesthetic« th a t e m erg es fro m th e e ig h te e n th -c e n tu ry th eo rie s - m u st b e viewed w ith som e skepticism . W h e th e r o n e is c o n sid e rin g g a rd e n in g o r m aps, th e u tilita ria n a n d aesth etic are n o t in d e p e n d e n t o f each o th e r n o r o f th e c o n te x t in w hich they em erg e. T h ey are, if o n e will allow a b it o f ja rg o n , d iffe re n t actu aliza­

tions o f possibilities in h e r e n t in ae sth e tic o b jecth o o d .

T h e case o f m aps is especially clear. A m ap is a t o n c e a p ic tu re a n d a guide. It is u se d to p lan such things as g a rd e n s a n d new tow ns — to m a p o u t a la n d s c a p e - a n d it is u sed to p ro v id e travel d ire c tio n s a n d c o n c e p tu a l sch e m a tiz atio n s o f a w orld n o t im m ed iately know n. As a p ic tu re , a m a p in ­ vites e m b e llish m e n t a n d im ag in atio n . H e rm a n M oll drew m ap s n o t only o f real places b u t o f im a g in e d ones. A m a p ’s re p re se n ta tiv e fu n c tio n is satis­

fied b est by m ak in g it a th in g to be viewed, a n d th a t easily in c lu d e s view ing it in d e p e n d e n tly o f its g u id in g fu n c tio n .

B u t as a g u id e, it also is a c o n c e p tu a l schem e. T h e im p o rta n c e o f dif­

f e re n t p ro je c tio n s d e p e n d s b o th o n how they m ake th e m a p lo o k a n d th e in fo rm a tio n th a t they can convey. B efore satellites, n o o n e actually was able to view th e p a tte rn s a n d to p o g ra p h y o f th e e a rth . H ow lan d s a n d ro u te s are co n ceiv ed re q u ire s a symbol-system fo r th e m in d to em ploy. W h e n th e u n ­ know n is lab ele d , » th ere be d ragons,« m o re th a n sim ply a co n fessio n o f ig­

n o ra n c e is im p lied . O n e is m oving in to th e chaos o f th e ill-fo rm ed fro m th e cosm os o f th e o rd e re d w orld. N e ith e r as p ic tu re n o r as g u id e is th e re any co n flic t b etw e en th e fu n c tio n s a n d th e p leasu re th a t ev e n tu a tes fro m a pic­

tu re a n d fro m th e o rd e re d c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n o f space. T h e p u re ly u tilitar­

ian asp e ct o f a travel g u id e m ay b e served as well by an u n e m b e llis h e d m ap as o n e a r tf u lly c o lo r e d a n d d e c o r a t e d , b u t th e u tility i t s e l f in v o lv es c o n c e p tu a liz a tio n . O n e do es n o t sim ply travel fro m A to B b u t fro m L o n ­ d o n to E d in b u rg h - places o f th e m in d as m u ch as g e o g ra p h ic a l location s.

T h e ten sio n s arise because co n c ep tu alizatio n itself is n o t n e u tra l. Terry E ag leto n is rig h t to re m in d us th a t th e aesth etic au to n o m y th a t results is n o t itself a u to n o m o u s .14 O n e fa cto r in th e la rg e r p ic tu re o f m iddle-class, m e r­

can tile a p p ro p ria tio n o f the symbols o f pow er a n d a rt th a t c o n trib u te s to th e ae sth e tic iz atio n o f th e m id d le class’s own m ateria l in tere sts can b e fo u n d in m ap s u se d fo r display a n d d e c o ra te d fo r a e sth e tic effects. E very on e ca n a d o p t this sym bol o f pow er a n d c o n q u e st w ith o u t having to c o n sid e r th e actual con seq u en ces o f colonial a n d m ercan tile co n q u e st.15 If a m ap b eco m es

14 E agleton, T. (1990). The Ideology of the Aesthetic. O xford, Basil Blackwell, 3.

15 In the same context, and as a p art o f the same aesthetic m ovem ent, o ne m ight consider T hom as L aw rence’s p o rtra it o f Q ueen C harlotte - at once a royal p o rtra it in th e trad itio n o f co u rt p ain tin g an d a rep rese n tatio n o f the G erm an hausfrau, s trip p e d o f regal trappings. (It is also an e n tre p re n e u ria l effort on Law rence’s p a rt th a t failed.)

Dabney Toiunsed

a sym bol o f th e b re a k in g o u t o f th e old w orld in to a w id er new w orld; if it is c o n n e c te d w ith th e m ak in g o f new fo rtu n e s, in d e p e n d e n t o f th e o ld o r d e r a n d th e o ld la n d e d assignm ents, if it is an in s tru m e n t o f co m m erce a n d thu s o p p o s e d to th e stable, a g ra ria n society lo n g e d fo r by th e o ld o rd e r, th e n th in k in g in term s o f m aps a n d w h at they show is a th re a t to th a t o ld o rd e r.

I f a m a p b elo n g s to a class a n d an e c o n o m ic ideology, th e n it is n e v e r ju s t an a u to n o m o u s c o n c e p tu a l stru c tu re . To h a n g a m a p o n th e wall o r to use it as th e c a rto o n fo r a tapestry is to m ake a statem en t, to identify o n e s e lf w ith th e asp ira tio n s o f th e e x p lo re rs a n d co m m ercial in tere sts th a t d e p e n d o n its in fo rm a tio n . B ut it do es so in a way th a t d oes n o t re q u ire th e risk a n d d a n g e r o f e x p lo ra tio n , any m o re th a n th e fictional w orlds o f th e n ov el re ­ q u ire o n e to e x p e rie n c e th e real vicissitudes o f society. T om J o n e s w ould ce rtain ly b e h a n g e d in th a t w orld.

Yet as a p ic tu re a n d as an o rd e rin g device, a m ap c a n n o t b e lim ite d to a single ideology. T h e k in d o f re d u c tio n ism th a t w ould m ake any sym bol n o th in g m o re th a n a n exp ressio n o f som e p o litical o r e c o n o m ic id eo lo gy ig n o re s th e p h e n o m e n o lo g y o f th e aesth etic. To save th e ae sth e tic , th e re ­ fo re, o n e m u st m ove th e sym bol fro m its id eo lo g ical a n d u tilita ria n setting . T h a t is alread y im p licit in th e d e ta c h m e n t th a t arises from display. To h a n g th e m a p o n th e wall, to in c lu d e it in a p a in tin g , to weave it in to a c o m m e r­

cial p ro d u c t is alread y to d e ta c h it fro m its basic in fo rm a tio n a l a n d u tilita r­

ian fu n c tio n . T h u s th e ae sth e tic in its m o d e rn sig nificatio n em e rg e s fro m th e te n sio n b etw e en w h a t th e m ap is a n d w h a t it m u st be in o r d e r to b e enjoyed.

T h a t to o results in a c o n c e p tu a l ideology, however. M o d ern a e sth e tic s is n o t a sim ple analytical d e ta c h m e n t. T h e p ro m o tio n o f th e a e sth e tic as a n a u to n o m o u s re alm is a »saving o f th e ap p e ara n ces« th a t is fu n d a m e n ta lly in co n flic t w ith its own origins. T h e re su lt is th e k in d o f n in e te e n th -c e n tu ry ae sth e tic ism a n d tw en tieth -c en tu ry anti-social a n d avant-garde m o v em en ts in a r t a n d p h ilo so p h y th a t den y th e c o n te x t o f th e object. U ltim ately, su ch d e ta c h m e n t m akes th e ae sth etic irre le v an t a n d u n a b le to fulfil th e e x p re s ­ sive fu n c tio n assigned to it. If we cease to ca re w hat m aps a re m ap s of, th ey cease to b e m aps. T h e n n o t only th e u tilita ria n fu n c tio n b u t th e e n jo y m e n t th a t b elo n g s to th e ir ae sth e tic ap p e a l is lost.

I l l

W h at is n e e d e d is to ex tra ct from this eco nom ic, political, a n d id eo lo g i­

cal m ix a c o h e re n t p h ilo so p h ic a l a rg u m e n t as well. A first a tte m p t a t th a t

m ig h t c o n sid e r th a t m aps a n d o th e r form s o f sym bolic a p p ro p ria tio n o f th e tra p p in g s o f upper-class pow er are a fo rm o f sym bolic a c tio n alo n g th e lines o f speech-act th eo ry o r the theory o f co n ferra l advocated by G eo rg e D ickie.16 T hey serve n o t m erely to re p re se n t, as G o m b rich argues, b u t also to c reate a re la tio n sh ip betw een an au d ien c e a n d w hat beco m es a fo rm o f expression.

T h e im itative a sp e c t o f m aps, fo u n d in th e ir u tilitaria n fu n c tio n to re p re ­ se n t in v aria n t p ro p e rtie s, gives th e m legitim acy as form s o f re p re s e n ta tio n . B u t im ita tio n th e o rie s o f a rt b e lo n g to th e id eal w orld th a t s u p p o rts th e a risto cratic p o w er stru c tu re . T h e rig h ts o f th e aristo cracy a re b a se d o n a c o m p lex c h a in o f b e in g th a t gives legitim acy to th e ir rig h t to ru le. F o r th e new m ap-m akers a n d m ap-users, however, th e m ap s w ork to sh ift p ow er to th o se w ho a p p re c ia te th em . T h ey em p o w e r th e e n tre p re n e u rs , a n d they allow o th e rs to e x h ib it th em a n d p a rtic ip a te vicariously in this e x p a n sio n o f th e w orld. As su ch , it is n o t th e ir im itative possibilities b u t th e ir expressive o n es th a t are im p o rta n t. It do es n o t m a tte r m u ch to th e a e sth e tic s o f m ap s w h e th e r they a re a c c u ra te o r n o t. It m a tte rs a g re a t deal ho w th ey look, in ­ c lu d in g w h a t they are tak en to b rin g forw ard. A n im ag in ary la n d sc a p e will d o as well as a re a l o n e if th e o b je c t is to ex p ress a n d evo ke feelin g s, so S alvatore Rosa, C lau d e L o rrain e, a n d th e se v e n te en th -ce n tu ry D u tc h g e n re a n d land scap e p ain ters create the k in d o f land scape th at will b e p ictu resq u e.

G a rd e n s im ita te art. M aps w ork th e sam e way. T h ey c re a te an im a g in a ry w orld o f ex p a n sio n a n d feelings o f ex c ite m e n t. T h e n b o u rg e o is life im itates a r t in this re sp e c t as well.

U n d e rly in g this analysis is s o m e th in g im p o r ta n t a b o u t th e re la tio n b etw een re p re s e n ta tio n , fiction, a n d th e fu n c tio n in g o f la n g u a g e a n d sym­

bols. I have a rg u e d elsew here (w ith o u t m u c h success, it m u s t b e a d m itte d ) , th a t m e ta p h o rs a n d fictions w ork by c re a tin g qu asi-im p erativ e ru le s th a t g u id e th e play er - th a t is, th e p e rso n w ho seeks to u n d e rs ta n d s o m e th in g m e ta p h o ric a l o r to p a rtic ip a te in a fictional w orld - a n d th a t th o se im p e ra ­ tives take p re c e d e n c e over the n o rm al stru ctu re o f indicative d e sc rip tio n a n d a sse rtio n .17 O n e o f th e basic pow ers o f sym bolic c o n s tru c tio n is this k in d im p erativ e activity th a t b o th establishes a n d teach es th e ru les by w h ich o n e is allow ed to u n d e rs ta n d a w orld. B ecause tho se ru les are b o th c o n stra in e d by reality a n d su b ject to m o d ificatio n arb itrarily w ith in lim its, th ey a c c o u n t fo r th e du al n a tu re o f m e ta p h o rs as a t o n ce no n -literal a n d leg itim a te form s o f sp eech . Similarly, they a c c o u n t fo r o u r ability to in sta n tia te fictio n s a n d

16 Dickie, G. (1974). Art and the Aesthetic: An Institutional Analysis. Ithaca, C ornell University Press an d (1984). The Art Circle. New York, Haven.

17 Tow nsend, D. (1989). Aesthetic Objects and Works of Art. W akefield, NH, Longw ood A cadem ic Press.

Dabney Townsed

in c o rp o ra te th e m in to o u r e m o tio n a l lives in spite o f th e ab su rd ity p o in te d o u t by C olin R a d fo rd .18

I now suggest th a t in th e tran sitio n al p e rio d w hen ae sth e tic s b e c o m e s aesth etics in its m o d e rn is t sense a n d ceases to be th e neo -P lato nic th e o ry o f beauty, th e tra n sfo rm a tio n o f sym bols o f pow er by q u asi-u tilitarian fo rm s such as m aps, g a rd e n in g , a n d royal p o rtra itu re act as p a rt o f this la rg e r sym­

bolic co n stru c tio n . T h ey p ro v id e form s by w hich o n e is e n a b le d to play th e gam es c o h e re n tly in a new way. Or, to a d a p t D ick ie’s vocabulary, th ey are p a r t o f th e in stitu tio n a l shift th a t co n fers a u th o rity o n o n e p a r t o f sym bol users to estab lish new ways o f u sin g old sym bols a n d creates new sym bolic fo rm s as well (e.g. th e novel a n d th e re a d in g p ub lic, th e b o u rg e o is th e a te r in place o f th e m asq u e, h istory in stead o f allegory, etc.) U n like D ick ie’s e a r­

lier versions o f th e in stitu tio n al theory, I arg u e th a t n o tju s t an y o n e can p ra c­

tice this co n ferra l. T h e au th o rity re q u ire d com es fro m th e e c o n o m ic a n d m a te ria l realities o f a cu ltu re . B ut w hat is c re a te d as a re su lt o f th a t a u th o r­

ity is itself im p lica ted in an e x p a n d in g ability to p ra ctice such c o n fe rra l a n d to establish th e ru les o f th e m e ta p h o ric a l a n d fiction al gam es. T h o se m e ta ­ p h o rs, fictions, a n d sym bols, reciprocally, em p o w e r th a t p o rtio n o f a c u ltu re th a t creates them .

T h e im p o rta n t th in g is to reco g n ize th a t this is n o t sim ply a c u ltu ra l relativism . It all takes place w ithin very re al co n strain ts. S om e o f th o se c o n ­ strain ts a re physical - as physical as th e p lag u e th a t u n d e r m in e d th e m e d i­

eval synthesis o r th e m a p -m a k e r’s surveys. O th e r co n stra in ts a re ec o n o m ic , th e n o less real c o n stra in ts o f th e th e o rie s a n d system s o f e x c h a n g e a n d w ealth. A rt exists in every situ atio n thus fa r know n to us. T h e ae sth e tic th e o ­ ries th a t arise in th e se v e n te e n th a n d e ig h te e n th c e n tu rie s su pply o n e fo rm o f a r t a n d a p p re c ia tio n , o n e based o n ind ividu al sensibility a n d ae sth e tic autonom y. T h a t does n o t m ake th a t ap p reciatio n a n d a u to n o m y any less real, however. O n e c a n n o t d o every thing at any tim e. B u t a t any tim e, th e re will b e s o m e th in g th a t a r t is cap ab le o f d o in g . I am a rg u in g th a t if we lo o k at w h a t is actually h a p p e n in g in th e artw o rld in re la tio n to its e c o n o m ic , cu l­

tu ral, a n d social c o n te x t a n d sim ultaneously a t th e way th a t re p re se n ta tio n a l a n d re fe re n tia l systems w ork, we will be ab le to see, ju d g e , a n d a p p re c ia te th e a r t th a t b elo n g s to th a t p a rtic u la r artw orld. T h a t is a t o n ce th e tim eless­

ness a n d th e tim eliness o f art. It is n o t b o u n d by its p o in t o f c re a tio n , b u t it d e p e n d s o n th a t p o in t fo r its co n c rete form , a n d w ith o u t th a t c o n c re te form , th e re is n o art.

18 R ad fo rd , C. (1975). »How Can We Be M oved by th e F ate o f A n n a K arenina?«

Proceedings o f the Aristotelian Society 49: 67-80 an d R adford, C. (1977). »Tears an d Fictions.« Philosophy 52: 208-213.

M aps a re th us b o th o n e o f th e ways th a t we d e te rm in e w h at is actually h a p p e n in g a n d o n e o f th e clearest in stan ces o f how it can h a p p e n . I t w o uld h ave b e e n p o in tle ss a n d u n th in k a b le to tre a t m aps as o bjects o f d e c o ra tio n fo r th e b o u rg e o is u n til th e b o u rg e o is w ere in a p o sitio n to c h a n g e th e ec o ­ n o m ic a n d political rules. O n c e they w ere, m aps also b e c o m e a m ean s o f ad v a n cin g th e new o rd e r, in c lu d in g a new ae sth e tic sensibility. O n e m ig h t c o m p a re th e m to w h at goes o n w ith b o o k illu m in a tio n as it m oves fro m sa­

c re d to royal a n d th e n p ro fa n e co n tex ts a n d finally issues in th e trav elin g lib rarie s a n d r e a d e r su b scrip tio n s o f a re a d in g p ub lic. T h e a e sth e tic s o f dis­

in te re ste d n e ss a n d ae sth etic attitu d e s is a t o n ce th e reality a n d th e ideolo gy o f th a t new, m o d e rn is t order.