Mednarodna konferenca International Conference
EDUvision 2012
»Sodobni pristopi poučevanja prihajajočih generacij«
»Modern Approaches to Teaching Coming Generation«
Ljubljana, 6. – 7. december 2012 / 6th & 7th December 2012
Organizator / Organizer EDUvision, Stanislav Jurjevčič s.p.
Mednarodna konferenca EDUvision 2012
»Sodobni pristopi poučevanja prihajajočih generacij«
Ljubljana, 6. – 7. december 2012
Organizator:
EDUvision
Stanislav Jurjevčič s.p.
Uredila: mag. Mojca Orel
Izdal in založil:
EDUvision, Stanislav Jurjevčič s.p.
CIP - Kataložni zapis o publikaciji
Narodna in univerzitetna knjižnica, Ljubljana
37.091.3(082)(0.034.2) 37.091.64(082)(0.034.2) 37:004(082)(0.034.2)
MEDNARODNA konferenca EDUvision (2012 ; Ljubljana)
Sodobni pristopi poučevanja prihajajočih generacij [Elektronski vir] = Modern approaches to teaching coming generation / Mednarodna konferenca, International Conference EDUvision 2012, Ljubljana, 6.-7. december 2012, 6th & 7th December 2012 ; organizator Eduvision ; uredila Mojca Orel. - El. knjiga. - Polhov Gradec : Eduvision, 2012
Način dostopa (URL): http://eduvision.si
ISBN 978-961-93189-7-3 (pdf)
1. Gl. stv. nasl. 2. Vzp. stv. nasl. 3. Orel, Mojca, 1971- 4. Eduvision (Polhov Gradec)
264464128
KAZALO / INDEX
PREDGOVOR ... 8
PROGRAMSKI IN RECENZENTSKI ODBOR MEDNARODNE KONFERENCE ... 9
SODOBNI PRISTOPI IN IZZIVI / MODERN APPROACHES AND CHALLENGES ... 10
PLENARNE PREDSTAVITVE ... 11
Fostering student teachers’ self-reflectivity by using concept mapping ... 12
Verbalna procena: procena znanja ili procena sposobnosti uočavanja problema? ... 22
Raising cultural awareness by the use of VOICETHREAD at English lessons ... 29
Međupredmetno povezivanje likovnog i glazbenog odgoja ... 35
7 načel učinkovitega učenja v znanosti ... 41
Že osemletnik lahko razume razliko med bilanco stanja in izkazom uspeha ... 53
Primena antropologije u individualnom projektu reforme nastave na Filozofskom fakultetu u Beogradu ... 57
Povezanost učeničke percepcije odnosa sa nastavnikom i postupaka nastavnika sa postignućem na PISA testovima ... 86
Kognitivni, metakognitivni i motivacijski aspekti rješavanja problema ... 95
Naravoslovni šolski projekt - izziv za dijake in mentorje ... 108
Brain Gym®, proces uravnoteženja in učenci z Downovim sindromom ... 123
Pomen aktivnega pouka pri poučevanju naravoslovnih vsebin ... 127
Poučevanje razmišljanja v Sloveniji po programu CoRT avtorja dr. Edwarda de Bona ... 135
PREDSTAVITVE ... 141
Učenje projekt metodom (PBL) u nastavi „Moje okoline“ ... 142
Savremeni pristupi u uđbemicima muzičke kulture ... 152
Digitopalmarni odtis v diferencialni diagnostiki ... 161
Promocija naravoslovja z vertikalnim povezovanjem: vrtec – osnovna šola - gimnazija ... 171
Povezovanje teoretičnih vsebin sociologije s prakso skozi mednarodni projekt COMENIUS ... 176
Spoznavanje matematike in njene uporabnosti skozi projektno delo ... 184
Uporaba sodobne tehnologije pri poučevanju matematike, poslovne matematike in statistike v srednjem in višjem šolstvu ... 195
Perspektive o nastavi budućih nastavnika ... 204
Kaj vse se dogaja med izvedbo skupinskega eksperimentalnega dela? ... 216
Šolske novinarke malo drugače ... 227
Kreativnost kao profesionalna kompetencija učitelja primarnog obrazovanja ... 233
Medvrstniško učenje – učenje, ki povezuje ... 252
Metode in dejavniki poučevanja ... 258
Tek za zdravo srce ... 271
Učni krogi ... 282
Sodobni pristopi poučevanja ... 290
Opazujmo globoko vesolje ... 298
Jednak pristup za sve: osnaživanje socijalne dimenzije u cilju jačanja evropskog prostora visokog obrazovanja ... 312
Kamerna muzika Učiteljskog fakulteta u Beogradu – predlog nove strategije razvoja muzičke kulture dece i mladih ... 317
Učna ura medpredmetna povezava grška glasba – naravoslovje ... 327
Raziskovanje prsti in kamnin v vrtcu ... 333
Delo v paru in manjših skupinah – učenje in druženje ... 349
VREDNOTENJE ZNANJA / KNOWLEDGE EVALUATION ... 361
PREDSTAVITVE ... 362
Kompetencijski profil nastavnika u postupku vrednovanja i ocjenjivanja učeničkih postignuća u školi ... 363
Evaluation of multimedia resources for informatics education in Croatian elementary schools ... 373
Ocjena temeljena na broju i vrsti dosegnutih obrazovnih postignuća u području jezika u nastavnom predmetu Hrvatski jezik u 4. razredu osnovne škole u Republici Hrvatskoj ... 387
POUČEVANJE ZA OKOLJE IN TRAJNOSTNI RAZVOJ / TEACHING ON ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT ... 406
PLENARNE PREDSTAVITVE ... 407
Education for sustainable development after RIO+20: Perspectives for Slovenia ... 408
Plastics – the material for the 21th century ... 421
Ozaveščanje učencev v osnovni šoli k okoljski vzgoji... 430
Zdravje učenca v luči osebnostnega razvoja ... 452
PREDSTAVITVE ... 458
Obrazovni sistem i održivi razvoj: mogućnosti istraživanja ... 459
Ukrepi za spodbujanje raziskovanja med dijaki Gimnazije Jesenice ... 472
Življenje dreves skozi oči otroka ... 479
Mnenje učiteljev o razvoju okoljskih kompetenc v osnovni šoli ... 497
“Ozelenjavanje” kurikuluma u sistemu obrazovanja i vaspitanja Republike Srbije ... 507
Mesto vzgoje in izobraževanja za trajnostni razvoj v slovenskem šolskem sistemu ... 516
Šolska energetska kampanja: Don't be blue, be green instead! ... 543
Aktualnost raziskovalne naloge ... 548
Energijske pijače, idealne za mladostnike? ... 558
Znanje in odnos učencev do rjavega medveda ... 566
Model spletnega komuniciranja pri promociji projekta ... 580
Ekološko ozaveščanje z likovno dejavnostjo ... 589
DIJAKI SE PREDSTAVIJO Z RAZISKOVALNIMI NALOGAMI / SECONDARY STUDENTS PRESENT THEIR RESEARCH WORK... 606
Probiotiki v prehrani – kaj so in kako delujejo? ... 607
Sodelovanje šole s podjetji ... 619
Prednosti raziskovalnega dela in kritičnega vrednotenja informacij za dijaka ... 634
Sončni kolektorji – ekonomski in ekološki vidik ... 637
Sončna celica s tulipanovim barvilom ... 642
Z ukrepi do nizkoogljične družbe ... 655
Prisotnost semen pelinolistne žvrklje (abrosia artemisifolia) v paketih s hrano za zunanje ptice . 663 ČLOVEŠKI VIRI – KOMUNIKACIJA IN RAZVOJ OSEBNOSTI / HUMAN RESOURCES – COMMUNICATION AND PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT ... 681
PLENARNE PREDSTAVITVE ... 682
Vloga javnega govornega nastopanja pri poklicu učitelja/vzgojitelja ... 683
Retorika v šoli ... 694
Spretnost komuniciranja z različnimi tipi osebnosti ... 701
Gestalt pedagogika kot učna paradigma kakovostne šole ... 710
Medgeneracijsko sodelovanje in prostovoljstvo dijakov GSKŠ Ruše v lokalni skupnosti ... 726
PREDSTAVITVE ... 737
Commentators’ descriptive narrative modes - objective, judgmental, historical - to tell the game story ... 738
Anksioznost maturanata: procena i predikcija ... 743
Teacher-a competent communicator ... 753
Razredna interakcija ... 774
Vloga razrednika pri oblikovanju odgovornega in uspešnega učenca... 783
Pedagoški eros med odnosi ... 788
Vloga učiteljev in svetovalnih delavcev pri motivaciji za krepitev zdravega življenjskega sloga pri učencih in njihovih starših ... 796
Učenci s težjo obliko čustvenih in vedenjskih težav v redni osnovni šoli... 815
PRILAGAJANJE IZOBRAŽEVANJA NOVIM TEHNOLOGIJAM / EDUCATION ADAPTATION TO NEW TECHNOLOGIES ... 829
PLENARNE PREDSTAVITVE ... 830
Slow Reading and Deep Understanding for Multimedia Learning ... 831
Spletno podprto izobraževanje na Filozofski fakulteti v Ljubljani – analiza izkušenj in mnenj uporabnikov sistema e-izobraževanja ... 838
PREDSTAVITVE ... 858
Model za poučevanje HCI – izpostaviti človeka v interakciji človek-računalnik ... 859
eAsistent: e-dnevnik in e-redovalnica skozi oči učitelja, razrednika in administratorja sistema ... 871
Projekcijska kamera pri matematiki? ... 878
Analiza stavkov pri pouku nemščine s pomočjo metod umetne inteligence ... 883
Vredno se je potruditi za vsakega starša, uporaba e-pošte da ali ne ... 889
Pravljični svet knjižnice ... 895
Prva slovenska spletna vadnica za matematiko na razredni stopnji ... 902
Elipsa skozi zgodovino ... 914
Projekt parabola ... 925
Virtualni biotehnološki laboratorij ... 936
Uporaba sodobnih IKT rešitev v vzgoji in izobraževanju ... 950
Ovisnost i sigurnost internetskih korisnika u obrazovanju ... 959
Igraj se z menoj – uči se z menoj ... 975
Powerpoint v vrtcu … vzgojiteljice? Ne, štiriletni otroci! ... 982
Kako smo pojem zasvojenosti spoznavali preko različnih družabnih omrežij ... 987
Kolegialno učenje in glasovalne naprave ... 1000
Interaktivna tabla v vrtcu cerkno ... 1005
SPONZORJI / SPONSORS ... 1015
Pre d gov or
PREDGOVOR
Mednarodna konferenca EDUvision 2012
»Sodobni pristopi poučevanja prihajajočih generacij«
»Povej mi in bom pozabil, pokaži mi in si bom morda zapomnil, vključi me in bom razumel«, je star kitajski pregovor, ki nas nagovarja k temu, da je potrebno učence in študente v največji možni meri aktivno vključevati v pouk, saj bodo imeli s takšnim pristopom večjo možnost izražanja svojih talentov in raziskovalnega duha.
Prav Mednarodna znanstvena konferenca EDUvision 2012 nam predstavlja stičišče za izmenjavo takšnih idej in izkušenj.
S sloganom konference »Postanimo sprememba, ki jo želimo videti v svetu« postavljamo temelje prihodnjim generacijam, saj le z lastno spremembo, tako svojih gledišč kot vrednot, in s svojim zgledom lahko pokažemo, kako živeti, da bi omogočili razvoj in pozitivne spremembe tukaj in zdaj.
Na konferenci predstavlja svoje vizije preko 130 avtorjev iz 6 držav v katerih se avtorji osredotočajo predvsem na sodobne pristope in izzive poučevanja, načine vrednotenja znanja, osebnostno rast posameznika, trajnostni razvoj in uporabo sodobnih tehnologij v izobraževanju.
Z izmenjavo idej in pogledov pa bomo tako pripomogli k razvijanju inovativnih rešitev, kako se s sodobnimi pristopi približati prihajajočim generacijam, saj se je potrebno stalno spreminjati in prilagajati ter zaplavati s tokom življenja.
Programski in organizacijski odbor mednarodne konference EDUvision 2012
Progr am ski in r ecenze ntski odb or
PROGRAMSKI IN RECENZENTSKI ODBOR MEDNARODNE KONFERENCE
THE PROGRAMME AND REVIEW COMMITTEE OF INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE
Programski in recenzentski odbor
mag. Mojca Orel, Gimnazija Moste
vodja programskega in recenenzentskega odbora mag. Urška Bučar, Osnovna šola Dolenjske Toplice
dr. Peter Gray, Norwegian University of Science & Technoloogy
dr. Vesna Ferk Savec, Naravoslovnotehniška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani
mag. Helena Korošec, Pedagoška fakulteta Univerze v Ljubljani
dr. Saša Nedeljković, Filozofski fakultet u Beogradu
Alenka Perko Bašelj, Gimnazija Moste, Ljubljana
mag. Martina Šetina Čož, Izobraževalni zavod Znanje
Špela Škof Urh, ravnateljica Gimnazije Moste, Ljubljana
mag. Irena Šterman, Gimnazija Moste, Ljubljana
mag. Axel Zahlut, European Network of Innovative Schools Austria, Vienna
dr. Nejc Zakrajšek, Inštitut in akademija za multimedije, Ljubljana
dr. Srečo Zakrajšek, Inštitut in akademija za multimedije, Ljubljana
Sodob ni p risto p i in izz iv i
I.
SODOBNI PRISTOPI IN IZZIVI
MODERN APPROACHES AND CHALLENGES
Sodob ni prist opi in iz zi vi – p le na rn e p re d st avi tve
PLENARNE PREDSTAVITVE
PLENARY PRESENTATIONS
Sodob ni prist opi in iz zi vi – p le n arn a pre d st avi tev
Fostering student teachers’ self-reflectivity by using concept mapping
1Jačanje samouvida kod studenata budućih nastavnika uz korišćenje konceptualnih mapa
Milan Stančić
Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Lidija Radulović
Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Magdalena Perišić
Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade, Serbia
Summary
In this study we have analysed 46 concept maps and essays of students-future teachers in order to find traces of their self-reflection upon teaching profession and themselves as teachers. We have introduced concept maps and essays about own learning process to student teachers within their regular portfolio keeping activity during the semester. This was done, among other things, to encourage students to monitor their own learning process and to improve their self-reflexivity. Research results indicate that the most of students report changes in their views regarding teaching profession and themselves as teachers. Although it was impossible to conclude whether technique of concept mapping or essay writing (or something else in their work on the course) fostered such changes, we could say that reflections occurred more in essays of students who had more personal approach in organisation of their maps and essay writing. This indicates that more effort should be put in encouraging students to approach these assignments in «their own way»
which would involve examination of attitudes towards changes in their own views.
Key words: concept mapping, self-reflection, teacher education, students, portfolio.
Sažetak
U ovom istraživanju analizirali smo 46 konceptualnih mapa i eseja studenata kako bi pronašli tragove njihovog samouvida o prefesiji nastavnik i njima samima kao budućim nastavnicima. Konceptualne mape i pisanje eseja o sopstvenom procesu učenja uveli smo studentima, budućim nastavnicima, u okviru njihove sada već redovne aktivnosti vođenja portfolia tokom semestra. Ovo je, između ostalog, učinjeno kako bi podstakli studente da prate proces sopstvenog učenja i da unaprede svoju samorefleksivnost. Rezultati istraživaja pokazuju da većina studenata govori o promenama u svojim pogledima na profesiju nastavnika i sebi kao budućim nastavnicima. Iako je bilo nemoguće zaključiti da
1 Note: This article is a result of the project »Models of evaluation and strategies for improvement of education quality in Serbia«, No 179060 (2011-2014), financially supported by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technological Development of Republic of Serbia.
li je tehnika konceptualnog mapiranja ili pisanje eseja (ili pak nešto drugo u njihovom radu na kursu) podstaklo te promene, možemo reći da se samorefleksija javljala u većem broju u esejima studenata koji su imali ličniji pristup u organizaciji svojih mapa i u pisanju eseja. Ovo ukazuje da bi se više napora trebalo uložiti u ohrabrivanju studenata da ovim zadacima pristupe „na svoj način“ koji bi uključivao preispitivanje stavova prema promenama u svojim gledištima.
Ključne reči: konceptualno mapiranje, samouvid, obrazovanje nastavnika, studenti, portfolio.
Introduction to concept maps
Concept map is a tool developed in line with idea advocated by cognitive psychology that people construct idiosyncratic schematic representations of what they know (McCormick & Pressley, 1997) and in line with Ausubel’s theory of meaningful learning (Ausubel, 1968) where learning takes place by the assimilation of new concepts and propositions into existing concepts and propositional frameworks held by the learner (so called: individual’s cognitive structure).
Concept maps are usually referred to as diagrams that represent ideas as node-link assemblies; a type of graphic organizer that is distinguished by the use of labelled nodes denoting concepts (usually enclosed in circles or boxes of some type) and links denoting relationships among those concepts, which can also be labelled by so called – linking words (Nesbit & Adesope, 2006; Novak
& Cañas, 2008). Another common, yet not general, characteristic of concept maps is that the concepts are represented in a hierarchical fashion with the most inclusive (most general) concepts at the top of the map and more specific, less general concepts arranged hierarchically below. We stress the word «not general» in order to say that such hierarchical structure is almost never absolute, but it rather depends on the context in which a particular domain of knowledge is being applied or considered. Therefore, as Novak & Cañas suggest, it is best to construct concept maps with reference to some particular question we seek to answer (so called: focus question) or to some situation or event we are trying to understand through the organization of knowledge in concept maps manner (Novak & Cañas, 2008).
Concept maps were developed in 1972 out of necessity, within a research project aimed to follow and understand changes in children’s knowledge of science, to find a better way to represent and follow children’s knowledge and conceptual understanding (Novak & Cañas, 2008). Since then, the technique of concept mapping was not only used as a tool for research on how students understand something or to trace changes in their understanding over time, but also as a practical media for constructive and collaborative learning activities and as communication aid in lectures and study materials (Cañas et al., 2003, as cited in Nesbit & Adesope, 2006). Moreover, as Farrell (Farrell , 2001) argues, researches indicate that concept mapping is used to understand how teachers use their knowledge to carry out a complex task such as teaching and to trace conceptual change of pre-service teachers understanding of education and teaching and of their approach to teaching. In both cases, students or (future) teachers, primary functions of concept mapping are to foster learning by activating prior knowledge and illustrating its relationship with new concepts, thus making thinking visible and sharing it with others in order to stimulate reflection on how specific concepts and relationships between them are understood.
Context of our study
We have introduced concept maps in school year 2011/12 as a part of our work on Pedagogy course with students of Faculty of Philosophy that might become teachers in the future. More specifically, concept maps were introduced as a mandatory part of a portfolio that students need to keep during a semester. Our rationale for introducing portfolio back in 2003 and for now
introducing concept map within it, was in essence the same: to encourage students to monitor their own learning process, to improve their self-directivity in learning and self-reflexivity, and to contribute to successful students’ learning. Moreover, the idea of concept maps resulted from our research on how our students perceive portfolio keeping activity. Results we gained show that students have difficulties in organising materials in their portfolio so that it makes a meaningful entity (Radulović & Stančić, 2011). Thus, in school year 2011/12, we have introduced the activity of portfolio keeping to students with the same basic principles as before (we let them decide themselves about the content and the form of their portfolio in order to facilitate students’ self- directivity in learning, they can document any experience they consider relevant for learning the subject and gaining competence for teaching profession), but now with two mandatory elements that their portfolio must have: a concept map with a focus on «Me as a teacher» and final essay on their process of learning during the course. Therefore, our intentions were to:
Help students in organising their portfolio and to ensure that such organisation is guided by what they find as important (not by teachers’ prescriptions), so that portfolio receives a more personal note and personal meaning for students.
Ensure that students acquire comprehensive view of the programme, that is, connect its various components around the main problem (teaching profession and themselves as teachers).
Make students think about pedagogy related concepts that they find personally important for their development as teachers.
Encourage students to monitor their learning process and to develop habit of monitoring and documenting of own work.
Encourage students to critically examine pedagogical problems and to take their own stance towards them.
Enable students for meta-analysis of different sources of information, own relationship towards them and of the learning process itself.
On the beginning of the course, when meaning and functions of portfolio are explained, students had a workshop on building concept maps (instructional material on portfolio keeping and concept mapping are also provided to students). The aim of a workshop was not only to explain concept mapping technique, but also to provide students with opportunity to start building their maps right on spot and to share ideas with colleagues. Students were encouraged to continue working on their initial maps during our work on the course and their work on portfolio, so that they represent changes in their way of thinking and new things they learned. In the end, concept maps are to be used to represent students learning process during the semester and to make their portfolio understandable to others (to serve as a kind of a guide through portfolio). The final essay that students needed to write about their learning process during the course was also meant to tell a story about the map (to be a talking map) and about student’s portfolio as a whole.
The primary function of map and essay, as well as of portfolio of which they are a part, was to facilitate students learning, in a manner which will ensure that the course programme produces personal meanings, and in the sense, that learning becomes the property and responsibility of the student. At the same time, these elements were obligations for students, thus at the end of the course they were subject to evaluation by teachers, of what students were informed at the beginning.
Above stated main information about the context in which we introduced and followed a change in our teaching is a part of a wider context that we would also like to emphasize on this place.
Namely, broader context of the study, whose results we will show in this paper, is related to the teacher education programme that is realised in the institution with a tradition of academic education. This context is «coloured» by the way we understand education and professional development of teachers on one side, and on the other by common requirements of academic
university education in the educational system which is, by its tradition, as well predominantly oriented towards academic values.
Starting from the understanding of education and professional development of teachers as transformative process in which teachers (and future teachers) not only acquire knowledge, but above all question their assumptions, create and modify their implicit and explicit ways of understanding and their beliefs, thus examine and change themselves, we searched for methods that could make personal perceptions of oneself and own professional roles a subject to awakening and questioning, thus contribute to personal transformation2.
At the same time, as noted before, we introduced this type of activity in the programme of our course within the whole study programme that is academic, which is also a characteristic of the entire university education and previous education of our students. Thus students, future teachers, we work with do not have much experience with the activities in which they are expected to have a personal stance, especially not explicating and questioning of attitudes towards oneself, which is why this kind of activity represents something new to them.
Research question and research method
At the end of the work on a course, when we gathered students’ portfolios in order to evaluate them, we draw on opportunity to analyse their maps and essays in order to better understand how students managed their way with these activities and to see if our starting ideas for introducing them were meaningful. This way we could analyse fulfilment of our intentions from various aspects, but for this study our main research question was: How did concept mapping contribute to development of self-reflectivity in student teachers?
Students’ maps and essays will be described and quantitatively presented by themes that they deal with, which will be followed by our findings/analysis of students relationship towards teaching profession and themselves as future teachers, and in the end we will try to look back at what we learnt about this activity and it’s possibilities, thus what we could do in the future.
By taking our starting ideas and also by preliminary review of gathered maps and essays (46 of them, paired), we have decided to examine occurrence of students self-reflection in terms of their examination of own attitudes and beliefs on teacher profession and themselves as teachers (positioning themselves as teachers - thinking about being a teacher, thinking like a teacher).
Method of data analysis was content analysis. Students’ maps and essays were analysed independently, not knowing who they belong to. This was done in order not to imprint researchers’
impressions about a map on essay of the specific student or vice versa. After the analysis was done for all maps and all essays, results were paired and further compared in order to check their consistency and relationship.
Analysis of concept maps involved determining the core mode of its design (organisation) and analysis of its structure by: counting the number of levels around which the concepts are organised, determining existence of cross-links (relationships between concepts in different segments or domains of the concept map), existence of labels on links between concepts – linking words, existence of references to materials in portfolio (for a visual explanation of these elements see Image 1). All stated structural characteristics of concept maps were explained to students on the workshop and in additional materials.
2 Grounds for this understanding lies in contemporary theories of teacher and teacher education that define professional development of teacher through connectedness of professional and personal, i.e. by looking at these aspects of
development as inseparable. Starting point of these understandings can be found in the views that highlight the importance of teacher research and reflectivity (Schon, 1987; Lytle & Cochran-Smith, 1994; Radulovic, 2011), importance of different aspects of teacher change, and as the most significant state changes in personal domain (Diaz- Maggiolo, 2004, as cited in: Stankovic Pavlovic, 2010), insist on an integrated approach to development of teachers' that includes the emotional domain and stresses the importance of experiencing self-efficacy and self-esteem, as well as implicit theories of teachers (Hargreaves, 1995).
Image 1. Clarification on structural elements of concept maps (example)
Analysis of students’ final essays on their learning process during the semester consisted in determining the core story-telling mode and analysis of its contents by: classification of topics that students write about with a focus on occurrence of self-reflectivity considering teaching profession and themselves as future teachers.
Research results
Analysis of structural characteristics of concept maps showed that most of the students’ concept maps had two-level structure of concepts (30 maps), 6 maps had only one level and 10 maps had three or more; in 13 maps we have found cross-links between concepts from different domains;
only in 10 maps links between concepts were labelled and described, while 14 maps had some reference to materials in student’s portfolio.
In further analysis these formal structural characteristic of concept maps did not show as anyhow linked with the students approach to organisation of concept map or to essay writing, nor with occurrence of students' self-reflection on teaching profession and themselves as teachers; thus, these analysis will not be commented further in this paper.
Regarding organisation of students’ concept maps and essays, we have to mention that many of them did not have a consistent mode of organisation, but it was possible to determine which mode is prevailing. Main concept map design modes that were identified through its concept contents and main essays story-telling modes that we identified through themes that students write about, together with their frequency among students, are shown in the table below (Table 1).
Table 1. Identified concept map design modes and essay story-telling modes Concept map design modes:
Students organise their maps around...
Total:
teacher roles
course topics
students own concerns, interests...
Unclear mode, unable to define
Count 2 0 0 2
% of Total 4,3% ,0% ,0% 4,3%
Final essay story-telling modes:
Students in their essays describe...
manner and process of work on course classes
Count 1 4 0 5
% of Total 2,2% 8,7% ,0% 10,9%
what they were learning through the course
Count 3 11 9 23
% of Total 6,5% 23,9% 19,6% 50,0%
what (good) teacher needs to know and needs to do
Count 1 5 2 8
% of Total 2,2% 10,9% 4,3% 17,4%
what they will do as teachers
Count 2 1 2 5
% of Total 4,3% 2,2% 4,3% 10,9%
materials in their portfolio
Count 0 3 0 3
% of Total ,0% 6,5% ,0% 6,5%
Total: Count 9 24 13 46
% of Total 19,6% 52,2% 28,3% 100,0%
We can see that most of the students (24 of them) have found it as convenient to organise their concept maps mostly around thematic units from the course programme (such as: School as community, Teaching methods, Evaluation, Conceptions of education, etc.), while 9 students felt it was better to organise their map around teacher roles (e.g. Planner, Evaluator, Collaborator), which are also one of the course themes. Some students were freer in organising their maps, thus 13 of them arranged concepts having in mind their own concerns, interests and perspectives as future teachers, that are sometimes even regardless of course contents (e.g. Classroom management, Violence in schools, Inclusive education).
Regarding modes of story-telling in final essays, 5 students tended to describe manner of work during our classes (mainly in terms of methods used and general atmosphere, rarely referring to topics and to their own learning). For example: “... we were working in groups most of the time, which I found very interesting because it’s not typical for classes on our faculty. Classes usually had positive and cheerful atmosphere, until we get tired (...) I think it is a good method because I was learning on classes and such way of working made me understand better many things.”
The most students (23, that is 50%) were describing in their essays what they were learning through the work on our course (4 students mention almost all of the topics we dealt with on our course, while 19 students only mention the ones they found important for them). For example: “I have learned a lot of useful things on this course. When I came to this course, at the beginning I can say that I had some misconceptions about what education really is. Now I look at it from much broader perspective (...) I also learned about teacher profession, which tasks it implies and what roles teachers need to perform...”, “One of the most important things I have learned on this course was about connectedness of aims and methods. Namely, if somebody asked me before this course about it I would say – yes, they are connected. But it doesn’t mean that I was completely aware of this...”
Some students (8 of them) have chosen to describe in their essays what a good teacher needs to know and be able to perform (mostly by going through all of the course themes). E.g. “Teacher
must love his job and he must use various methods in teaching in order to be able to organise class so that his students acquire knowledge. Good teacher must encourage students to expand their knowledge and to teach them how to critically examine certain problems and to have their own opinion about it...”
Only 5 students described their learning process in essays mainly through what they will do as teachers (referring only to topics they find important). For example: “While I was learning through this course about education, teachers roles, teaching methods, evaluation, teaching programme, etc., I have always tried to make a model of how I would do it once I become a teacher in school. Such approach made me critical about the theory, on one side, and myself on the other. And it made me understand why self-evaluation is so important for teachers and why I should question my work once I am a teacher.”
Least number of students (only 3) was mainly describing their portfolio contents in the essay, e.g. “Beside mandatory elements and materials from classes, I included in my portfolio many articles that are giving light on my interests and that are helping me in researching on some problems that teachers face in practice. For example, violence in schools is a common problem nowadays. I read a lot about it, also from newspaper, and then I wrote about my views on that topic in an essay.”
We can notice that one half of the students’ essays are written from the perspective of what they were learning through work on the Pedagogy course. Also around half of the students organised their concept maps by topics we dealt with during the course. These two also represent the most common combination among students (11 out of 46, that is, almost one quarter). Having this in mind, we can say that their approach to concept mapping and essay writing, is oriented around structure known to them (course programme), which can be interpreted as a matter of their need to rely on «secure solution» when keeping portfolio and also when describing their learning process.
Another common combination is: map organised around student’s own interests and views and essay oriented on describing what they were learning through the semester (9 students). In these cases, maps were usually giving impression of a more personal approach (given that concepts were explicitly organised around what students themselves defined as a matter of their interest, concern, style, etc.), yet on the other side, in their essays students felt that they should stick to the course curriculum when describing their learning process. Such insights could be understood by results obtained from previous research on difficulties that students have in portfolio keeping activity where more than one third of students report that they felt insecure whether their portfolio is organised in a «proper manner» (Radulović & Stančić, 2011), even though it was many times emphasized to them that there is no universal manner in portfolio keeping.
Regarding occurrence of students’ self-reflection on teaching, teacher profession and themselves as teachers, we can say that more than half of students explicitly state that they have changed their views as a result of their process of learning during the course. Most of the students (30 out of 46), as shown in Table 2, report that work on Pedagogy course have contributed to their recognition of complexity of the teaching profession, while 27 students state in their essays that it made them think about themselves as teachers.
Other, a bit less prevailing, topics for reflection in students’ essays are from the domain of didactics (usually regarding teaching methods and curriculum), school as a community (cooperation, multiculturalism and inclusion), conceptions of education, and from the domain of evaluation (both in terms of student assessment and teacher as self-evaluator and relfective practitioner).
Table 2. Occurrence of students' self-reflection on teacher profession and themselves as teachers Students report on changes in their perspective
on...
teacher profession themselves as teachers Concept map design modes
Map organised around...
teacher roles 5 out of 9 (55,6%) 6 out of 9 (66,7%)
course topics 15 out of 24 (62,5%) 13 out of 24 (54,2%)
students own concerns, interests, views... 10 out of 13 (76,9%) 8 out of 13 (61,5%) Final essay story-telling modes
Students describing...
process of work on course classes 3 out of 5 (60,0%) 3 out of 5 (60,0%) what they were learning through the course 14 out of 23 (60,9%) 12 out of 23 (52,2%) what (good) teacher needs to know and be able to
do 7 out of 8 (87,5%) 3 out of 8 (37,5%)
what they will do as teachers 5 out of 5 (100,0%) 5 out of 5 (100,0%)
materials in their portfolio 1 out of 3 (33,3%) 3 out of 3 (100,0%)
Total: 30 out of 46 (65,2%) 27 out of 46 (58,7%)
As shown in Table 2, more than a half of students who wrote their essays by what they learned through the semester, or by describing the process of work on course classes, speak about changes in their views regarding both teacher profession and themselves as teachers. On the other hand, almost all students that were relying on what (good) teacher needs to know and be able to do, and all students that were describing what they will do as teachers in their final essay, report about changes in their views regarding teaching profession. Least number of students that had reflection on teacher profession in their essay was from the group that wrote their essay in manner of describing materials they have in their portfolio. Nevertheless, situation differs regarding students’
reflections about themselves as teachers. We can notice that all students with before mentioned essay story-telling mode had such reflections, as wells as students who wrote their essays in terms of what they will do as teachers, while significantly less numbers of students who’s story-telling mode was describing what a good, imaginary teacher should know and do had reflection on themselves as teachers (about 37%).
Considering the way in which students organised their concept maps, analysis show that there are no big differences regarding occurrence of students’ self-reflection on teacher profession and themselves as teachers. Although, we can comment that occurrence of self-reflection regarding teacher profession is slightly increased in group of students who decided to organise their concept map having in mind their own concerns and interests as future teachers.
Conclusion
In this study we have tried to determine whether use of concept mapping technique and writing of essays on own process of learning have a power to foster students’ self-reflection on teaching profession and themselves as future teachers. We can say that this activity helped our students in acquiring comprehensive view of the programme, in making sense of pedagogy concepts and problems, and in monitoring their learning process. Also, regarding focus of this paper, we can conclude that the most of our students have made self-reflections about teacher profession and themselves. Yet, in the end, we have found that it is almost impossible to conclude whether such changes in students views are a result of conceptual mapping, essay writing about own learning process, or result of their work during our course and work on portfolio. Although, given that
students had various approaches to organising their concept maps and to essay writing, we can get an idea that some of those approaches led to better results in terms of occurrence of students’ self- reflection.
Our research findings show us that the more personal approach our students have had in making their concept maps and writing their final essays, the more they report on changes in their views on teaching profession and themselves as teachers. This finding can only be taken as an idea, something to think about, considering that development of students’ self-reflection is quite a complex phenomenon to «catch» and considering the limited number of analysed cases in this research. Nevertheless, these initial findings call for a more comprehensive approach to researching this issue in terms of a greater coverage and research methodology, but also in terms of other topics (such as: personal relation to variety of pedagogical problems).
Also, given that largest number of students decided to organise their concept maps and describe their process of learning in the essay by some structure known to them and somehow verified as valid and favourable (thematic units from course programme), we can suspect that our students feel insecure to be more personal in these tasks. Such insecurity might be a result of contextual factors since these activities are a part of assessment of students work.
Consideration of possibilities to foster students’ self-reflectivity by using conceptual mapping led us to realize following contradictions:
External evaluation can be a motive for students to engage in this activity, but in the same time, it can be an obstacle to a genuine and personal approach to pedagogical concepts and reconsideration of own views, attitudes, values, abilities, etc.
Concept maps are, as a form of organising cognitive concepts, by default, helpful in cognitive development, but in the same time, for their use in the context of teacher education, a more holistic approach to personal development is necessary.
Also, we could notice that our students create their concept maps at the end of the course and not during the semester as we intended and were hoping for. Thus, this raises a question of how to ensure that students continually monitor their learning process and changes in their understandings of pedagogical concepts and problems, and not only to show how they see links between concepts at the end of learning process.
Having in mind such insights, more effort should be put into encouraging students to do things their own way and into emphasizing the meaning of activities (such as portfolio, essay writing) that do not have one uniform and desirable form, but rather require personal approach and welcome diverse solutions.
In the upcoming period, our plan in order to overcome mentioned challenges and contradictions is to organise opportunities for students to share among each other how they understand concepts that are in their maps. Moreover, we could allow them to choose their pair for this activity in order to make them feel more secure in sharing personal content, views, concerns, etc. We will also try, when we introduce concept maps, to focus our students to personal approach to pedagogical concepts and encourage them to address not only aspects of professional development, but also personal.
Our idea is to try to search for a solution also in terms of providing different models of conceptual mapping. Some of them will involve changes in structural and organisational designing of concept maps, e.g. using different colours to mark changes over time, using specific shapes to point out personal views, emphasizing the importance of concepts linking and of using link labelling to express their personal comments, etc.
However, regardless which model we choose, we believe that the most important for developing self-reflectivity in students is to ensure overall climate in educational context that fosters students’
confidence and reflection.
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Short presentation of the authors:
Milan Stančić, PhD student of Pedagogy, research assistant at Institute for Pedagogy and Andragogy on Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade. His main fields of interest are teacher education, didactics, quality of teacher work, teacher evaluation.
Lidija Radulović, PhD of Pedagogy, assistant professor at Teacher Education Center on Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade. Her main fields of interest are teacher profession, teacher education, teacher reflective practice, didactics. She is actively involved in processes of reform of teacher education in Serbia and development of new teacher education programmes.
Magdalena Perišić, PhD student of Pedagogy, research assistant at Institute for Pedagogy and Andragogy on Faculty of Philosophy, University of Belgrade. Her main fields of interest are teacher education, didactics, philosophy of education, ethical basis of educational theory and practice.
Sodob ni prist opi in iz zi vi – p le n arn a pre d st avi tev
Verbalna procena: procena znanja ili procena sposobnosti uočavanja problema?
Verbal assesment – assesment of knowledge or assesment of ability to detect a problem?
Nenad Cekić
Filozofski fakultet, Beograd
Sažetak
U ovom tekstu autor pokušava da pokaže da je u obrazovnom procesu verbalna procena ponekada neizbežna. Glavna teza rada je da se u nekim slučajevima slučajevima suština procene ne može svesti samo na procenu znanja (o istinitom opisu predmeta izučavanja) već da ona obuhvata i procenu sposobnosti uočavanja i razumevanja fenomena. Autor koristi dva primera: procenu u oblasti fizike i procenu u oblasti filozofije. Komplikovanost fenomena koji se izučavaju ponekada zahtevajun aktivan dijalog između nastavnika i studenta. Pri tom, tu nije reč o retoričkim pitanjima ubeđivanja već o prirodi samih fenomena: oni se ponekada prirodno opiru klasičnim oblicima objašnjenja. Stoga je verbalna procena po autorovom mišljenju ponekada neizbežna.
Ključne reči: znanje, istina, opis, ubeđivanje, razumevanje
Summary
In this article, the author tries to prove that in, some cases, verbal assesment is required in the educational process. The main thesis is that essence of assesment is not only knowledge but detecting and understanding of phenomena, as well. The author uses two examples: assesment in physics and philosophy. Perplexity of phenomena sometimes requires spoken dialogue between a teacher and a student. According to author's opinion, verbal assesment is sometimes unavoidable.
Keywords: assesment, knowledge, truth, description, persuasion, understanding
Još je poznati metaetičar Čarls Stivenson davnih tridestih godina ukazao da treba razlikovati dokazivanje i ubeđivanje. Stivenson, istina, vrednosnim iskazima dodeljuje dve vrste značenja – deskriptivno (da li je nešto istinito ili ne?) i vrednosno koje karakteriše kao emotivno tj. kako jezikom utičemo na druge (v. Stevenson, 1963, str. 10- 31; 153-174). Pretpostavka je da je nastavnička dužnost da procenjuju znanje studenata a ne njihovu veštinu ubeđivanja. Znanje je po definiciji povezano sa pojmom istine.
Međutim, ova jasna slika uloge nastavnika drastično se promenila u proteklom stoleću.
Razlog je jednostavan: razvoj prirodnih nauka (naročito fizike) i humanističkih nauka (naročito: teorije vrednosti) zamaglile su nekada jasnu razliku između „istinitog“ i
„neistinitog“. Demonstrativno dokazivanje bilo je rezervisano za tzv. „stroge nauke“, a
„ubeđivanje“ (emotivnost, osećajnost) za vrednosnu sferu. U međuvremenu jasna
njutnovska mehanicistička slika sveta je srušena, pa čak ni fiziku više nije moguće predavati na tradicionalan način. Nevolja leži u tome što je u graničnim oblastima kao što su humanističke nauke još teže razdvojiti oblasti istine i neistine, znanja i neznanja i činjenica i vrednosti. Osim toga, sam pojam istine dobio je vrednosni karakter. Od prirode materije koja se izučava zavisi i adekvatan način ispitivanja studenata, pa čak i definicija onoga šta se ispituje. Filozofsko ispitivanje prirode ljudskog jezika još više je produbilo postojeće probleme. Napuštena je ideja da je jezik sredstvo čija je jedina uloga prenošenje informacijae. Jedan od najpoznatijih filozofa jezika Ostin (Austin), primera radi, kaže: “Logički princip prema kojem 'svaka propozicija mora biti istinita ili lažna' isuviše dugo funkcioniše kao najjednostavniji, najprodorniji i najrasprostranjeniji oblik deskriptivne greške.” (Austin, 1979, str. 131.) Tzv. „jezički obrt“ u filozofiji koji relativizuje jasnu razliku istina/neistina neminovno je uticao na prirodu podučavanja. Ovo naročito važi za savremeno stanje u humanističkim naukama, ali i u prirodnim naukama kao što je fizika. Pogledajmo, stoga, dva primera.
Primer 1: Kako proceniti poznavanje fizike?
Verovatno se danas slobodno može reći da se tzv. prirodne nauke svode ili bar oslanjaju (supervenijentne su u odnosu na) fiziku. Na bazičnom nivou njutnovske fizike pisana procena poznavanja činjenica u formi testova i zadataka je sasvim dovoljno za adekvatnu proveru znanja.
Ali, sa time se danas završava već u srednjoj, ako ne i u osnovnoj školi. Izučavanje fundamentalne fizike u formi teorije relativnosti i (naročito) kvantne mehanike je nešto što se ostavlja za univerzitetsku nastavu. Međutim, jasna njutnovska slika sveta ovde nestaje zajedno sa jednostavnim formulama koje se mogu pretočiti u jednoznačno rešive zadatke (testove). Za razumevanje stanja u savremenoj fizici potrebno je mnogo više od tehničkog poznavanja formula kojim se „mere“
određeni fenomeni. U kvantnoj fizici legitimna su tzv. dualistička objašnjenja (npr. foton je i talas i čestica), čemu se „zdrav razum“ prirodno protivi. Pisane provere znanja pogodne su za proveru poznavanja tačnog opisa nekog jasno određenog fenomena. Ali, šta se dešava ako se sami fenomeni opiruovoj vrsti opisivanja? Kako u čistu deskripciju (ili bar interpretaciju) pretočiti, recimo, samo naslov jedne savremene knjige o fizici: Kvantni univerzum: sve što se može dogoditi zaista se i događa? (Cox et al., 2011). O bizarnom i deskripciji nepodložnom ponašanju prirode na fundamentalnom mikro-nivou svedoči i jedan od najznačajnijih kvantnih fizičara 20. veka Ričard Fejnman (Richard Feynman): „U svoje vreme novine su pisale kako samo dvanaest ljudi razume teoriju relativiteta. Ne verujem da je to ikada bilo tako. Moglo je biti da ju je samo jedan čovek [Ajnštajn] razumeo, zato to ju je on shvatio pre nego što je napisao svoj tekst. Ali, pošto su ljudi pročitali njegov tekst mnogi ljudi su teoriju na ovaj ili onaj način razumeli, svakako više njih od dvanaest... S druge strane, mislim da je sasvim bezbedno reći da kvantnu mehaniku ne razume niko...Što se više vidi kako se čudno Priroda ponaša, teže je sačiniti model koji objašnjava kako čak i najjednostavniji fenomeni funkcionišu. Zbog toga su teorijski fizičari i odustali od toga.“
(Feynman, 1965, str. 129) Istina, Fejnmanovu izjavu treva shvatiti kao delimično ironičnu. Cox i Forshaw zbog toga kažu: „Kvantna teorija, priznajemo, ima reputaciju čudnovatosti...Mačke mogu istovremeno biti i žive i mrtve; čestice mogu biti na dva mesta istovremeno, Hajzenberg tvrdi da je sve neizvesno. Sve ovo je tačno, ali zaključak koji se vrlo često izvodi – da budući da se nešto čudno dešava u mikrosvetu – utapamo u misteriju, svakako nije. Vančulno opažanje, mistično isceljenje, vibrirajuće ogrlice koje štite od radijacije i ko zna šta još redovno se krijumčare u panteon mogućeg pod okriljem reči 'kvantno'. Ovo je besmislica stvorena od nedostatka jasnoće mišljenja, priželjkivanja, izvornog ili namerno štetnog pogrešnog razumevanja, ili neke nesrećne kombinacije svega navedenog. Kvantna teorija svet opisuje precizno, koristeći matematičke zakone koji su konkretni kao i bilo šta što su predložili Galilej i Njutn.“ (Cox et al., 2011, str. 4)
Kako rastumačiti ova dva naizgled suprotstavljena stava i kako proceniti da li ih je student razume? Ako se bar delimično složimo sa Fejnmanom, neminovno se nameće pitanje: šta se i kako
procenjuje na studijama savremene fizike? Iako sve izgleda prilično komplikovano, odgovor kao da se sam nameće: osnovni zadatak nastavnika postaje procena razumevanja (složenosti) problema, a ne mehanička provera znanja. Testovi, eseji i slični pisani oblici procene favorizovani u univerzitetskoj nastavi u Sjedinjenim Državama i Kanadi svakako nisu pogodni za ovu vrstu procene. Još je Sokrat uočio da živa rasprava ima svoje prednosti u odnosu na okamenjenu pisanu reč. O složenim fizičkim fenomenima može se rapravljati, ali se o tome da li student razume o čemu se tu uopšte raspravlja kompletna slika svakako ne može steći iz sistema testova, bodovanja i sličnih oblika procene. To što kvantna mehanika nema tzv. „realističku interpretaciju“ (onu koja se oslanja na jasne pojmove i „zdrav razum“) ne znači da se o njoj ne može raspravljati. Još se manje dozvoliti da se zbog složenosti fenomena u domen nauke i obrazovanja vrata otvore nečemu što nauka nije. Ali, za procenu da li je to student zaista razumeo potrebna je živa reč, a ne pisani test.
Nečije razumevanje fundamentalnih fizičkih problema jednostavno nije moguće proceniti pisanim putem.
Primer 2: kako proceniti poznavanje filozofije
U humanističkoj sferi procena nečijeg znanja je još komplikovanija. Uzmimo za primer filozofiju. Jezik je osnovno oruđe filozofa, a analiza fenomena značenje reči/termina i iskaza u poslednjih pedeset godina postaje jedna od centralnih tema filozofije. Pitanje procene znanja u vrednosnoj sferi, etici, na primer, direktno zavisi od ispitanikovog razumevanja značenja upotrebljenih termina. Ovde opet nastaje problem. Razumevanje funkcije moralnog jezika ne može se proceniti pisanim putem jer on nema samo deskriptivnu (kognitivnu) ulogu. Štaviše, postoji uticajna struja u metaetici i filozofiji jezika koja vrednosnom jeziku poriče bilo kakvu kognitivnu funkciju. Oni smatraju da su moralni sudovi samo ekspresije autorovog “etičkog osećanja”. Za nedefinisani tehnički termin “ekspersija” jedan od najpoznatijih emotivista Ejer koristi i sinonim
“ispoljavanje” (evincing). Ipak “ispoljavanje osećanja” nije isto što i tvdnja da se ima neko osećanje: dosadu ili bes mogu ispoljavati bez tvrđenja da mi je dosadno ili da sam besan.
Ekspresivna funkcija je karakteristika svih etičkih sudova u kojima se javljaju tipične vrednosne reči kao što je, na primer, “rđavo” (wrong). U tom smislu Ejer kaže: “…u svakom slučaju u kojem se za nekoga obično kaže da o donosi vrednosni sud, funkcija relevantne vrednosne reči čisto je
‘emotivna’. Ona se koristi da izrazi osećanja o određenim predmetima, ali ne i da se iznese tvrdnja o njima.” (Ayer, 1946, str. 107) Naravno, ono što je Ejer rekao je teorija i pisanim putem se može proveriti da li je student Ejerove tekstove čitao. Ali, da li je student uopšte razumeo šta je Ejer hteo da kaže, teško je proveriti nekakvim testom ili esejom. Nastavnik mora biti u poziciji da može da proveri da li je student razumeo (recimo) Ejerov bazični metaetički stav prema kojem su moralni sudovi – besmisleni (lišeni kognitivne funkcije), odnosno da jezik na tom nivou funkcioniše na nivou „ispoljavanja osećanja“ (uzvici tipa „ua!“, „jao!“).
Slični problemi su prisutni i na planu normativne etike. Nije teško u nekoj pisanoj proveri znanja postaviti pitanje: „Kako glasi osnovna formulacija Kantovog kategoričkog imperativa?“
Odgovor, koji se u različitim varijacijama u Kantovom opusu na više mesta može naći glasi:
„Postupaj samo prema onoj maksimi za koju istovremeno možeš hteti da postane jedan opšti zakon.“ I to je tačan odovor. Ali, kako pisanim putem proveriti da li je ispitanik razumeo koja je razlika između „hteti“ i „želeti“, šta je to „maksima“ i na koju vrstu opštosti (univerzalnost ili generalnost) Kant misli? Pisana provera ispitanikovog razumevanja Kantove osnovne ideje gotovo je nemoguća. Za to je potreban dijalog u formi pitanja i potpitanja koji se razvija prirodno i u neposrednoj komunikaciji, što pisana provera znanja ne omogućava.
Konačno, uzmimo još jednu ilustraciju iz Kantovog opusa, ovoga puta iz epistemologije.
Kantovo gledište da osnovni stav tzv. praosnovnog sintetičkog (transcendentalnog) jedinstva
apercepcije (prepričano) glasi: „'Ja mislim' mora moći da prati sve moje predstave“3 deluje čak i mračnije i nerazumljivije od teze kvantnih fizičara o dualističkoj korpuskularno-talasnoj prirodi svetlosti ili česticama čija je masa jednaka nuli. Ovde nije u pitanju samo teškoća koju proizvodi tehnički jezik već teškoća leži u razumevanju same Kantove ideje. Provera razumevanja problema u filozofiji na dubljem nivou moguća je samo putem razgovora. Testovi i eseji mogu biti uvod u taj razgovor ili provera spremnosti kandidata za sam ispit, ali ne i ceo ispit. Izgleda da se ni u oblasti filozofije verbalna procena ne može izbeći.
Kako izbeći klizavu padinu?
Jedan od mogućih argumenata u korist pisane procene znanja jeste konačnost te procene, što bi navodno trebalo da podrazumeva i njenu objektivnost. „Bodovi“ (na testovima) ne lažu i u proceni (znanja?) po definiciji nema elementa subjektivnosti. S druge srane, „dubinsko“
sagledavanje ispitanikovog razumevanja problema u formi pitanje – odgovor – potpitanje – odgovor....itd zaista nosi sa sobom opasnost od tzv. „klizave padine“ (o tome više u npr. Walton, 1993). Ako se u dijalogu dopusti „nešto malo“, a takvo dopuštanje na testovima i u esejima nije moguće, onda „to malo“ može voditi u nešto više, pa u još više – sve do potpunog kraha argumentacije. Ovo je struktura „argumenta klizave padine“ poznatog i pod imenom „soritski paradoks“. U konkretnom slučaju, ako dopustimo da se na ispitima ne procenjuje samo nečije znanje već i razumevanje problema, onda se suočavamo sa mogućom opasnošću. Npr. ako se ne može razumeti kako je moguće da foton bude i talas i čestica, kako ga je moguće opisati? Ako ga nije moguće opisati, kako je moguće znati bilo šta o njemu? Ako nije moguće bilo znati bilo šta o njemu kako razumeti njegovu prirodu? (Itd.) I tako dolazimo do fejnmanovske konstatacije da postoje fenomeni koje ne razume niko. Argument klizave padine, inače često korišćen u primenjenoj etici ipak nije tako jak. Iako postoji jak impuls da se pod pritiskom odustajanja od prvobitnih „jakih“ tvrdnji/objašnjenja na osnovu „domino efekta“ odustane i od slabijih – granicu je moguće povući, makar arbitrarno. U kvantnoj mehanici, primera radi to je granica koju određuje Hajzenbergov princip neodređenosti i osetljivost instrumenata, u filozofiji granica koju postavlja mogućnost deskripcije ili makar analogije. Međutim, mi probleme možemo uočavati, čak i onda kada izgledaju nerešivo. Nečije razumevanje kompleksnosti izvesnih problema teško se može proveriti isključivo pisanim putem.
Znanje i ubeđivanje
Još od istorijske rasprave između sofista i Sokrata u teoriji vaspitanja i obrazovanja pravi se razlika između znanja i mnjenja kojoj korespondira distinkcija između tzv. dijalektike (suštinske rasprave) i retorike (veštine ubeđivanja). Jedan od argumenata protiv usmene provere znanja/razumevanja može biti taj da iz znanja o problemu ili fenomenu skliznemo u retoričko ubeđivanje. Videli smo na primeru kvantne mehanike da se zbog neobičnosti fenomena na mikroplanu lako može upasti u tzv. „kvantni misticizam“. Zbog toga se pojam istine u proveri znanja i koristi kao regulativni pojam. Predmet ispitivanja trebalo bi da bude znanje o (nekoj) istini.
Ovde dolazimo do teze sa početka teksta: iako pojam istine i znanja deluje vrednosno neutralno, on to nije. On je deo tzv. „ubeđivačkih definicija“. Ako želimo da nekoga ubedimo u nešto upotrebićemo frazu koja počinje rečima kao što su: „Prava istina je...“; „Svi znaju da...“, itd. Kako definicija koju zamišljamo kao sredstvo neutralnog opisa tj, način saopštavanja analitičkog znanja uopšte može biti sredstvo ubeđivanja? Metaetika nudi odgovor na ovo pitanje: „'Ubeđivačka' je ona definicija koja poznatoj reči daje novo pojmovno značenje bez supstancijalne promene njenog emotivnog značenja, sa svesnom ili nesvesnom svrhom...izmene ljudskih interesa.“ (Stevenson,
3 Za svrhe ovog teksta ovu Kantovu ideju nije čak ni potrebno razjašnjavati. Ona služi samo kao ilustracija.
